The Space and Naval Warfare (SPAWAR) Systems Center Pacific (SSC Pacific) has a long and extensive history in
unmanned systems research and development, starting with undersea applications in the 1960s and expanding into
ground and air systems in the 1980s. In the ground domain, we are addressing force-protection scenarios using large
unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) and fixed sensors, and simultaneously pursuing tactical and explosive ordnance
disposal (EOD) operations with small man-portable robots. Technology thrusts include improving robotic intelligence
and functionality, autonomous navigation and world modeling in urban environments, extended operational range of
small teleoperated UGVs, enhanced human-robot interaction, and incorporation of remotely operated weapon systems.
On the sea surface, we are pushing the envelope on dynamic obstacle avoidance while conforming to established
nautical rules-of-the-road. In the air, we are addressing cooperative behaviors between UGVs and small vertical-takeoff-
and-landing unmanned air vehicles (UAVs). Underwater applications involve very shallow water mine
countermeasures, ship hull inspection, oceanographic data collection, and deep ocean access. Specific technology thrusts
include fiber-optic communications, adaptive mission controllers, advanced navigation techniques, and concepts of
operations (CONOPs) development. This paper provides a review of recent accomplishments and current status of a
number of projects in these areas.
Under various collaborative efforts with other government labs, private industry, and academia, SPAWAR Systems
Center Pacific (SSC Pacific) is developing and testing advanced autonomous behaviors for navigation, mapping, and
exploration in various indoor and outdoor settings. As part of the Urban Environment Exploration project, SSC
Pacific is maturing those technologies and sensor payload configurations that enable man-portable robots to
effectively operate within the challenging conditions of urban environments. For example, additional means to
augment GPS is needed when operating in and around urban structures. A MOUT site at Camp Pendleton was
selected as the test bed because of its variety in building characteristics, paved/unpaved roads, and rough terrain.
Metrics are collected based on the overall system's ability to explore different coverage areas, as well as the
performance of the individual component behaviors such as localization and mapping. The behaviors have been
developed to be portable and independent of one another, and have been integrated under a generic behavior
architecture called the Autonomous Capability Suite. This paper describes the tested behaviors, sensors, and
behavior architecture, the variables of the test environment, and the performance results collected so far.
Sensors commonly mounted on small unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) include visible light and thermal cameras,
scanning LIDAR, and ranging sonar. Sensor data from these sensors is vital to emerging autonomous robotic behaviors.
However, sensor data from any given sensor can become noisy or erroneous under a range of conditions, reducing the
reliability of autonomous operations. We seek to increase this reliability through data fusion. Data fusion includes
characterizing the strengths and weaknesses of each sensor modality and combining their data in a way such that the
result of the data fusion provides more accurate data than any single sensor. We describe data fusion efforts applied to
two autonomous behaviors: leader-follower and human presence detection. The behaviors are implemented and tested
in a variety of realistic conditions.
The fusion of multiple behavior commands and sensor data into intelligent and cohesive robotic movement
has been the focus of robot research for many years. Sequencing low level behaviors to create high level
intelligence has also been researched extensively. Cohesive robotic movement is also dependent on other
factors, such as environment, user intent, and perception of the environment. In this paper, a method for
managing the complexity derived from the increase in sensors and perceptions is described. Our system
uses fuzzy logic and a state machine to fuse multiple behaviors into an optimal response based on the
robot's current task. The resulting fused behavior is filtered through fuzzy logic based obstacle avoidance
to create safe movement. The system also provides easy integration with any communications protocol,
plug-and-play devices, perceptions, and behaviors. Most behaviors and the obstacle avoidance parameters
are easily changed through configuration files. Combined with previous work in the area of navigation and
localization a very robust autonomy suite is created.
Many envisioned applications of mobile robotic systems require the robot to navigate in complex urban environments. This need is particularly critical if the robot is to perform as part of a synergistic team with human forces in military operations. Historically, the development of autonomous navigation for mobile robots has targeted either outdoor or indoor scenarios, but not both, which is not how humans operate. This paper describes efforts to fuse component technologies into a complete navigation system, allowing a robot to seamlessly transition between outdoor and indoor environments. Under the Joint Robotics Program's Technology Transfer project, empirical evaluations of various localization approaches were conducted to assess their maturity levels and performance metrics in different exterior/interior settings. The methodologies compared include Markov localization, global positioning system, Kalman filtering, and fuzzy-logic. Characterization of these technologies highlighted their best features, which were then fused into an adaptive solution. A description of the final integrated system is discussed, including a presentation of the design, experimental results, and a formal demonstration to attendees of the Unmanned Systems Capabilities Conference II in San Diego in December 2005.
The Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego (SSC San Diego) is conducting a number of robotic research, development, evaluation, fielding, and combat-support missions and projects in support of Joint Robotics Program (JRP) goals. These include: Man-Portable Robotic System, Unmanned Surface Vessel, Automatically Deployed Communication Relays, Autonomous UAV Mission System, Robotic Systems Pool, Family of Integrated Rapid Response Equipment, and the Technology Transfer project. This paper summarizes the recent accomplishments and current status of these efforts, many of which are individually presented in more detail elsewhere at this conference.
The Technology Transfer project employs a spiral development process to enhance the functionality and autonomy of mobile robot systems in the Joint Robotics Program (JRP) Robotic Systems Pool by converging existing component technologies onto a transition platform for optimization. An example of this approach is the implementation of advanced computer vision algorithms on small mobile robots. We demonstrate the implementation and testing of the following two algorithms useful on mobile robots: 1) object classification using a boosted Cascade of classifiers trained with the Adaboost training algorithm, and 2) human presence detection from a moving platform. Object classification is performed with an Adaboost training system developed at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) Computer Vision Lab. This classification algorithm has been used to successfully detect the license plates of automobiles in motion in real-time. While working towards a solution to increase the robustness of this system to perform generic object recognition, this paper demonstrates an extension to this application by detecting soda cans in a cluttered indoor environment. The human presence detection from a moving platform system uses a data fusion algorithm which combines results from a scanning laser and a thermal imager. The system is able to detect the presence of humans while both the humans and the robot are moving simultaneously. In both systems, the two aforementioned algorithms were implemented on embedded hardware and optimized for use in real-time. Test results are shown for a variety of environments.
The Mobile Detection Assessment Response System (MDARS) provides physical security for Department of Defense bases and depots using autonomous unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) to patrol the site while operating payloads for intruder detection and assessment, barrier assessment, and product assessment. MDARS is in the System Development and Demonstration acquisition phase and is currently undergoing developmental testing including an Early User Appraisal (EUA) at the Hawthorne Army Depot, Nevada-the world's largest army depot. The Multiple Resource Host Architecture (MRHA) allows the human guard force to command and control several MDARS platforms simultaneously. The MRHA graphically displays video, map, and status for each resource using wireless digital communications for integrated data, video, and audio. Events are prioritized and the user is prompted with audio alerts and text instructions for alarms and warnings. The MRHA also interfaces to remote resources to automate legacy physical devices such as fence gate controls, garage doors, and remote power on/off capability for the MDARS patrol units. This paper provides an overview and history of the MDARS program and control station software with details on the installation and operation at Hawthorne Army Depot, including discussions on scenarios for EUA excursions. Special attention is given to the MDARS technical development strategy for spiral evolutions.
Unmanned vehicles perform critical mission functions. Today, fielded unmanned vehicles have restricted operations as a single asset controlled by a single operator. In the future, however, it is envisioned that multiple unmanned air, ground, surface and underwater vehicles will be deployed in an integrated unmanned (and "manned") team fashion in order to more effectively execute complex mission scenarios. To successfully facilitate this transition from single platforms to an integrated unmanned system concept, it is essential to first develop the required base technologies for multi-vehicle mission requirements, as well as test and evaluate such technologies in tightly controlled field experiments. Under such conditions, advances in unmanned technologies and associated system configurations can be empirically evaluated and quantitatively measured against relevant performance metrics. A series of field experiments will be conducted for unmanned force protection system applications. A basic teaming scenario is: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) detect a target of interest on the ground; the UAVs cue unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) to the area; the UGVs provide on-ground evaluation and assessment; and the team of UAVs and UGVs execute the appropriate level of response. This paper details the scenarios and the technology enablers for experimentation using unmanned protection systems.
The Technology Transfer project employs a spiral development process to enhance the functionality and autonomy of mobile systems in the Joint Robotics Program (JRP) Robotic Systems Pool (RSP). The approach is to harvest prior and on-going developments that address the technology needs identified by emergent in-theatre requirements and users of the RSP. The component technologies are evaluated on a transition platform to identify the best features of the different approaches, which are then integrated and optimized to work in harmony in a complete solution. The result is an enabling mechanism that continuously capitalizes on state-of-the-art results from the research environment to create a standardized solution that can be easily transitioned to ongoing development programs. This paper focuses on particular research areas, specifically collision avoidance, simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM), and target-following, and describes the results of their combined integration and optimization over the past 12 months.
The mission of the Unmanned Systems Branch of SPAWAR Systems Center, San Diego (SSC San Diego) is to provide network-integrated robotic solutions for Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) applications, serving and partnering with industry, academia, and other government agencies. We believe the most important criterion for a successful acquisition program is producing a value-added end product that the warfighter needs, uses and appreciates. Through our accomplishments in the laboratory and field, SSC San Diego has been designated the Center of Excellence for Small Robots by the Office of the Secretary of Defense Joint Robotics Program. This paper covers the background, experience, and collaboration efforts by SSC San Diego to serve as the "Impedance-Matching Transformer" between the robotic user and technical communities. Special attention is given to our Unmanned Systems Technology Imperatives for Research, Development, Testing and Evaluation (RDT&E) of Small Robots. Active projects, past efforts, and architectures are provided as success stories for the Unmanned Systems Development Approach.
Weapon payloads are becoming increasingly important components of unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs). However weapon payloads are extremely difficult to teleoperate. This paper explores the issues involved with automating several aspects of the operations of a weapon payload. These operations include target detection, acquisition, and tracking. Various approaches to these issues are discussed, and the development and results from two different working prototype systems developed at Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego (SSC San Diego) are presented. One approach employs a motion-based scheme for target identification, while the second employs an appearance based scheme. Target selection, arming and firing remain teleoperated in both systems.
The pocket-sized ThrowBot is a sub-kilogram-class robot that provides short-range remote eyes and ears for urban combat. This paper provides an overview of lessons learned from experience, testing, and evaluation of the iRobot ThrowBot developed under the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Tactical Mobile Robots (TMR) program. Emphasis has been placed on investigating requirements for the next generation of ThrowBots to be developed by iRobot Corporation and SPAWAR Systems Center, San Diego (SSC San Diego) Unmanned Systems Branch. Details on recent evaluation activities performed at the Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT) test site at Fort Benning, GA, are included, along with insights obtained throughout the development of the ThrowBot since its inception in 1999 as part of the TMR program.
In addition to the challenges of equipping a mobile robot with the appropriate sensors, actuators, and processing electronics necessary to perform some useful function, there coexists the equally important challenge of effectively controlling the system’s desired actions. This need is particularly critical if the intent is to operate in conjunction with human forces in a military application, as any low-level distractions can seriously reduce a warfighter’s chances of survival in hostile environments. Historically there can be seen a definitive trend towards making the robot smarter in order to reduce the control burden on the operator, and while much progress has been made in laboratory prototypes, all equipment deployed in theatre to date has been strictly teleoperated. There exists a definite tradeoff between the value added by the robot, in terms of how it contributes to the performance of the mission, and the loss of effectiveness associated with the operator control unit. From a command-and-control perspective, the ultimate goal would be to eliminate the need for a separate robot controller altogether, since it represents an unwanted burden and potential liability from the operator’s perspective. This paper introduces the long-term concept of a supervised autonomous Warfighter’s Associate, which employs a natural-language interface for communication with (and oversight by) its human counterpart. More realistic near-term solutions to achieve intermediate success are then presented, along with actual results to date. The primary application discussed is military, but the concept also applies to law enforcement, space exploration, and search-and-rescue scenarios.
Current man-portable robotic systems are too heavy for troops to pack during extended missions in rugged terrain and typically require more user support than can be justified by their limited return in force multiplication or improved effectiveness. As a consequence, today’s systems appear organically attractive only in life-threatening scenarios, such as detection of chemical/biological/radiation hazards, mines, or improvised explosive devices. For the long term, significant improvements in both functionality (i.e., perform more useful tasks) and autonomy (i.e., with less human intervention) are required to increase the level of general acceptance and, hence, the number of units deployed by the user. In the near term, however, the focus must remain on robust and reliable solutions that reduce risk and save lives. This paper describes ongoing efforts to address these needs through a spiral development process that capitalizes on technology transfer to harvest applicable results of prior and ongoing activities throughout the technical community.
Maintaining a solid radio communication link between a mobile robot entering a building and an external base station is a well-recognized problem. Modern digital radios, while affording high bandwidth and Internet-protocol-based automatic routing capabilities, tend to operate on line-of-sight links. The communication link degrades quickly as a robot penetrates deeper into the interior of a building. This project investigates the use of mobile autonomous communication relay nodes to extend the effective range of a mobile robot exploring a complex interior environment. Each relay node is a small mobile slave robot equipped with sonar, ladar, and 802.11b radio repeater. For demonstration purposes, four Pioneer 2-DX robots are used as autonomous mobile relays, with SSC-San Diego's ROBART III acting as the lead robot. The relay robots follow the lead robot into a building and are automatically deployed at various locations to maintain a networked communication link back to the remote operator. With their on-board external sensors, they also act as rearguards to secure areas already explored by the lead robot. As the lead robot advances and RF shortcuts are detected, relay nodes that become unnecessary will be reclaimed and reused, all transparent to the operator. This project takes advantage of recent research results from several DARPA-funded tasks at various institutions in the areas of robotic simulation, ad hoc wireless networking, route planning, and navigation. This paper describes the progress of the first six months of the project.
The Man Portable Robotic System (MPRS) project objective was to build and deliver hardened robotic systems to the U.S. Army's 10th Mountain Division in Fort Drum, New York. The systems, specifically designed for tunnel and sewer reconnaissance, were equipped with visual and audio sensors that allowed the Army engineers to detect trip wires and booby traps before personnel entered a potentially hostile environment. The greatest challenges for the project stemmed from the users three main requirements: 1) man-portable (lightweight and small), 2) waterproof (not just water-resistant), and 3) soldier proof(highly rugged and reliable). The MPRS systems were, of course, plagued by the usual problems in robotics: limited battery power (run-time) and limited communications range. At the Army's request, the systems incorporated no autonomous functionality; however, MPRS did integrate several state-of-the-art components, including a fully digital video system. This paper discusses specific challenges encountered and lessons learned by the MPRS team during recent tunnel and sewer reconnaissance testing at three sites in 2000: Fort Drum (New York), Fort Leonard Wood (Missouri), and Fort Polk (Louisiana).
The Mobile Detection Assessment and Response System, Exterior (MDARS-E) provides an automated robotic security capability for storage yards, petroleum tank farms, rail yards, and arsenals. The system includes multiple supervised-autonomous platforms with intrusion detection, barrier assessment, and inventory assessment subsystems commanded from an integrated control station.
ROBART III is intended as an advance demonstration platform for non-lethal response measures, extending the concepts of reflexive teleoperation into the realm of coordinated weapons control in law enforcement and urban warfare scenarios. A rich mix of ultrasonic and optical proximity and range sensors facilitates remote operation in unstructured and unexplored buildings with minimal operator supervision. Autonomous navigation and mapping of interior spaces is significantly enhanced by an innovative algorithm which exploits the fact that the majority of man-made structures are characterized by parallel and orthogonal walls. Extremely robust intruder detection and assessment capabilities are achieved through intelligent fusion of a multitude of inputs form various onboard motion sensors. Intruder detection is addressed by a 360-degree staring array of passive-IR motion detectors, augmented by a number of positionable head-mounted sensors. Automatic camera tracking of a moving target is accomplished using a video line digitizer. Non-lethal response systems include a six- barrelled pneumatically-powered Gatling gun, high-powered strobe lights, and three ear-piercing 103-decibel sirens.
ROBART III is an advanced demonstration platform for non- lethal security response measures, incorporating reflexive teleoperated control concepts developed on the earlier ROBART II system. The addition of threat-response capability to the detection and assessment features developed on previous systems has been motivated by increased military interest in Law Enforcement and Operations Other Than War. Like the MDARS robotic security system being developed at NCCOSC RDTE DIV, ROBART III will be capable of autonomously navigating in semi-structured environments such as office buildings and warehouses. Reflexive teleoperation mode employs the vehicle's extensive onboard sensor suite to prevent collisions with obstacles when the human operator assumes control and remotely drives the vehicle to investigate a situation of interest. The non-lethal-response weapon incorporated in the ROBART III system is a pneumatically-powered dart gun capable of firing a variety of 3/16-inch-diameter projectiles, including tranquilizer darts. A Gatling-gun style rotating barrel arrangement allows size shots with minimal mechanical complexity. All six darts can be fired individually or in rapid succession, and a visible-red laser sight is provided to facilitate manual operation under joystick control using video relayed to the operator from the robot's head-mounted camera. This paper presents a general description of the overall ROBART III system, with focus on sensor-assisted reflexive teleoperation of both navigation and weapon firing, and various issues related to non-lethal response capabilities.
The most significant challenge encountered in the implementation of the MDARS Interior security robot system has involved navigational referencing -- the ongoing process of determining a mobile robot's position relative to a specified global frame of reference. Sensors and processing used in local navigation (determining position relative to objects in the environment and not colliding with them en route) can also support global navigation in a mapped environment. The task involves not only detecting and localizing features in the robot's environment, but also establishing with some confidence that these features are in fact specific features that appear in the world model. This perceptual function is one that humans do easily and instinctively, while robotic capabilities in this regard are rudimentary at best. This paper discusses a number of candidate approaches to navigational referencing applicable to indoor operating environments in terms of relevant evaluation criteria (including performance, cost, and generality of applicability), and describes how the experience of phased testing in real-world environments has driven the evolution of the MDARS system design.
The MDARS security robotics program has successfully demonstrated the simultaneous control of multiple robots autonomously navigating within an industrial warehouse environment. This real-world warehouse system installation required adapting a navigational paradigm designed for highly structured environments such as office corridors (with smooth walls and regularly spaced doorways) to a semi-structured warehouse environment (with few walls and within which odd-shaped objects unpredictably move about from day to day). A number of challenges, some expected and others unexpected, were encountered during this transfer of the system to the test/demonstration site. This paper examines these problems (and others previously encountered) in the historical context of the ongoing development of the navigation and other technologies needed to support the operations of a security robotic system, and the evolution of these technologies from the research lab to an operational warehouse environment. A key lesson is that a system's robustness can only be ensured by exercising its capabilities in a number of diverse operating environments, in order to (1) uncover latent system hardware deficiencies and software implementation errors not manifested in the initial system hardware or initial development environment; and (2) identify sensor modes or processing algorithms tuned too tightly to the specific characteristics of the initial development environment.
The Naval Command Control and Ocean Surveillance Center (NCCOSC) has developed an architecture to provide coordinated control of multiple autonomous vehicles from a single host console. The Multiple Robot Host Architecture (MRHA) is a distributed, LAN-based, multiprocessing system that can be expanded to accommodate as many as 32 robots. The initial application will employ eight Cybermotion K2A Navmaster robots configured as remote security platforms in support of the Mobile Detection Assessment and Response System (MDARS) Program. MDARS is a joint Army-Navy development effort which seeks to provide an automated intrusion detection and inventory assessment capability for use in DoD warehouses and storage sites.
Key system and supporting technology issues associated with the design and development of effective general-purpose unmanned mobile robots for operation in unstructured outdoor environments are examined within the context of an advanced telerobotic mobile system developed by the Naval Ocean Systems Center (NOSC) -- The Unmanned Ground Vehicle Program Teleoperated Vehicle (TOy).
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