While offering promising applications in augmented reality (AR), the Maxwellian based AR display faces a critical limitation due to its constrained exit pupil size, posing discomfort to wearers and vulnerability to image loss upon minor misalignments. To address this issue, we propose a method utilizing Raman-Nath holographic grating for Maxwellian waveguide based display, aiming to expand the exit pupil effectively. It involves the development of two-dimensional gratings through the peristrophic multiplexing technique following the Raman-Nath regime. By spatially separating the outcoupled converging beam using multiplexed grating, an expansion of the exit pupil in horizontal as well as vertical directions is achieved. This enables the enlargement of the eye box into two dimensions, enhancing user comfort and mitigating the risk of image loss due to misalignments. Through experimental validation and optical simulation, the feasibility and effectiveness of our proposed method of Maxwellian waveguide displays for AR applications are demonstrated.
Optics and photonics have become integral components of undergraduate and postgraduate curricula due to their extensive applications in physics, biology, and engineering, particularly in fields such as sensing and communication. Diffraction and interference phenomena are building blocks for understanding principles of optics and photonics based technologies. As a result, these concepts are taught to students at various educational levels in colleges and universities. However, many students currently face challenges in grasping the fundamental principles of light diffraction and interference. To address this issue, there is a need for an experimental setup that can effectively and visually explain these principles to students. We present a single-beam experimental setup. This setup is well suited for conducting a range of experiments related to the diffraction and interference of light. Through the utilization of this setup, we are able to showcase the experiments involving diffraction patterns produced by circular apertures, knife-edge diffraction, single slit, wire diffraction, as well as intriguing phenomena, such as the Poisson spot and spatial frequency filtering.
Holography enables 3D visualization of scattered optical fields recorded from three dimensional (3D) objects. This has led to dedicated research efforts towards developments of holographic displays utilizing holographic imaging techniques. The fundamental drawback of holography is that real objects must be used to capture holograms, despite the fact that it is a generic approach for reconstructing 3D information. One of the most promising technologies for addressing this issue is holographic printing which is also able to synthesize combined real 3D and virtual objects. These printers are capable of producing holograms that can replicate all physiological depth signals of actual objects. Reconstructed images are therefore exceedingly realistic and avoid the accommodation-convergence dilemma that other 3-D display methods, such as stereoscopic displays have. Inside a light-sensitive material, reference and signal beams are utilized to create interference, but the recording is local and the procedure is a point-to-point recording of the overall interference pattern. Researchers have contributed in development of different optical schemes for holographic wavefront printers. In this study, we examine the different optical schemes that are adopted for development of holographic wavefront printer and compare their performance. The impact of different optical configurations on the quality of reconstructed images is analyzed in optical design simulation platform and experimental researches. In order to evaluate the performance of a particular set-up, we determine the structure similarity index measure (SSIM), viewing angle of reconstructed image, and diffraction efficiency of the recorded hologram. Experimental and simulated findings are studied and presented.
Thin films are used in many applications including holography, integrated optical circuits, polarizers, low-pass filters, beam splitters, and antireflection coatings. Refractive index and thickness of thin films are important parameters to understand its optical characteristics. In this work, thickness of thin film is measured by diffraction Lloyd mirror interferometer (DLMI). This interferometer works on the principle of superimposing two diffracted waves and direct geometric waves to generate the interference pattern. In comparison to the conventional Lloyd mirror interferometer, the interference pattern obtained by proposed interferometer covers a large area due to the presence of diffracted light in almost 4π region. The main idea of this work is to check the feasibility of DLMI to measure the thickness of films in single step. Three different test samples containing different step heights are used as a Lloyd mirror. The fringe patterns obtained from intereference of direct diffracted wavefront and reflected wavefront from samples are recorded using CMOS sensor. Recorded fringe patterns were further processed to extract phase by the application of Fourier transform. The 3D and 2D line profile of retrieved phase information are utilized to find the thickness of the film. The measured values of the thin film thickness by DLMI are compared with that of a standard mechanical profilometer. The experimental findings verify the usefulness of the proposed method.
The quantification of the spectral variation in optical properties, such as absorption and scattering cross-sections, of gold nanorods (GNRs) present within a medium is important for various applications such as spectroscopy, sensing and biomedical applications. The calculated absorption cross-section helps in the estimation of the plasmonic response of GNR, which is suitable for heat generation within a medium during the interaction of electromagnetic fields with nanoparticles. Here, the optical properties of GNR are simulated by using the finite element method and the role of domain size is evaluated. The domain is finer meshed by using tetrahedral elements of size range 0.48 – 60 nm, curvature factor of 0.7 and maximum element growth of 1.40. The electric field distribution is estimated by considering the propagation direction along the x-axis with incident field vectors along z-axis. The discussed results indicate that, on increasing the size of domain (medium) surrounding the GNR from 50 nm to 200 nm, the optical absorption cross-section increases by 450 nm2, and scattering cross-section decreases by 190 nm2. Also, the plasmonic wavelength of GNR gets blue-shifted, and the full-width half maxima (FWHM) gets decreased with an increase in the domain size. So, for the evaluation of the optical properties of GNR in a medium using the FEM model, the selection of domain diameter plays a significant role. Also, this quantitative knowledge of the role of a domain size will be useful for an estimation of the electric field distribution in a medium.
We demonstrate an application of digital holography for detection of a new type of defect, i.e., delamination of polyurethane pads on a polishing tool used on a high-speed computerized numerical control machine for production of precision optics. The method enabled us to acquire both qualitative and quantitative information about the delaminated region in the polishing pad. A delaminated region of 13.6 mm × 10.8 mm is detected and measured on the surface of the polishing pad. An increase in the delaminated region by 30% is noticed after completion of the polishing process with the delaminated polishing pad. The effect of delamination of the polishing pad on an optical surface is experimentally demonstrated using it for polishing a BK-7 glass substrate. These investigations may enable production of improved quality precision optics at the commercial level.
A quick and accurate way for testing collimation of laser beams is desired to achieve correct results in many optical instruments. Laser beam collimation is generally performed using glass wedge plates. For better accuracy, a set of wedge plates of different thicknesses and wedge angles are required to acquire first-hand visual information about collimation of laser beams having a wide range of diameters. Use of a compact holographic lateral shearing interferometer (HLSI) is demonstrated for collimation testing of laser beams having different beam diameters. The interferometer uses two holographic optical elements (HOEs) with provision of variable tilt in one of the HOEs to maintain a constant number of fringes in the interferograms for different diameters of input test beams. An angle of rotation of interference fringes from a reference position is measured to be 0.9 deg for a test beam of diameter 2 mm and 16 deg for the test beam of diameter 35 mm. We experimentally demonstrated range of optimum number of interference fringes in the interferogram for visual inspection of the collimation state of the test beam. Thus the proposed interferometer could replace a set of wedge plates generally required for collimation testing of beams having different diameters. The functioning of the interferometer for collimation testing of beams having different diameters is discussed and experimentally demonstrated.
Holographic optical elements (HOEs) play important role in realization of compact and cost effective systems. Use of
HOE not only give above mentioned advantages but an HOE can also be used to design and develop unusual system
configurations which may not be possible, at all, using the concepts of conventional optics. Present paper describes
fabrication of an HOE which contains both, reference and object, beams required for recording an off-axis hologram of
phase objects. Illumination of HOE with a collimated beam generates two spatially separated collimated beams which
intersect each other in the hologram recording plane. This combined HOE reduces a large number of opto-mechanical
components and alignment related issues, generally encountered in off-axis holography. Fabrication of HOE and
recording of holograms of phase objects using the HOE is described and experimental results of reconstructed holograms
are presented.
Plasma immersion Ion Implantation technique has been used to modify the diffusion barrier properties of titanium (Ti) metal layer against copper diffusion. Ti coated silicon wafer were implanted with doses viz. 1015ions/cm2 and 1017ions/cm2 corresponding to low and high dose regime. High dose of implantation of nitrogen ions in the film render it to become Ti(N). Cu/Ti(N)/Si structures were formed by depositing copper over the implanted samples. Diffusion barrier properties of Ti(N) was evaluated after annealing the samples up to 700 degrees C for 30 minutes. Sheet resistance, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) measurements were carried out to investigate the effect of annealing. Low dose implanted Ti layer does not show any change in its diffusion barrier properties and fails at about 400 degrees C. The failure of diffusion barrier properties of low dose implanted samples is attributed to the chemical reaction between titanium and copper films. The high dose implanted layer stops the diffusion of Cu metal through it even at high annealing temperature. The enhancement in its diffusion barrier properties is supposed to be due to nitridation of titanium film which increases the activation energy involved for its chemical reaction with copper metal film.
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