Granular phosphors are commonly used in several applications in biomedical imaging and instrumentation. The structural and optical properties of phosphor materials affect the optical signal transferred out and play a critical role in the quality of the final signal or image. In recent years, following developments in materials science and technology, several new methods have been successfully implemented for the preparation of nanosized phosphors. It is of interest to investigate whether nanophosphors could replace existing micro phosphors for next generation high-performance displays and imaging devices. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the variation of the optical parameters (e.g. light extinction coefficient mext, probability of light absorption p, light anisotropy factor g) in the sub-micron and nano scale under the variability of light wavelength (400-700 nm) and refractive index (e.g., two limiting values were used 1.4 and 2.0). For the case of low refractive index (1.4), by increasing the grain diameter: (a) the light extinction increases, (b) the light absorption probability decreases and (c) the anisotropy factor increases in the whole range or gran sizes (2-1000 nm). However, for the high value of the refractive index (2.0), the light extinction coefficient was found to increase up to a maximum for grain diameter: (a) 200 nm (at 400 nm light wavelength) and (b) 600 nm (at 700 nm light wavelength). Finally, at 400 nm grain diameter, the probability of light absorption was found to decrease down to a minimum while the anisotropy factor was found to increase up to maximum for all light wavelengths considered.
The purpose of the present study was to experimentally evaluate the imaging characteristics of the Lu2O3:Eu
nanophosphor thin screen coupled to a high resolution CMOS sensor under radiographic conditions. Parameters such as
the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), the Normalized Noise Power Spectrum (NNPS) and the Detective Quantum
Efficiency (DQE) were investigated at 70 kVp under three exposure levels (20 mAs, 63 mAs and 90 mAs). Since
Lu2O3:Eu emits light in the red wavelength range, the imaging characteristics of a 33.3 mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Eu conventional
phosphor screen were also evaluated for comparison purposes.
The Lu2O3:Eu nanophosphor powder was produced by the combustion synthesis, using urea as fuel. A scintillating
screen of 30.2 mg/cm2 was prepared by sedimentation of the nanophosphor powder on a fused silica substrate. The
CMOS/Lu2O3:Eu detector`s imaging characteristics were evaluated using an experimental method proposed by the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) guidelines.
It was found that the CMOS/Lu2O3:Eu nanophosphor system has higher MTF values compared to the CMOS/Gd2O2S:Eu
sensor/screen combination in the whole frequency range examined. For low frequencies (0 to 2 cycles/mm) NNPS values
of the CMOS/Gd2O2S:Eu system were found 90% higher compared to the NNPS values of the CMOS/Lu2O3:Eu
nanophosphor system, whereas from medium to high frequencies (2 to 13 cycles/mm) were found 40% higher. In
contrast with the CMOS/ Gd2O2S:Eu system, CMOS/Lu2O3:Eu nanophosphor system appears to retain high DQE values in the whole frequency range examined.
Our results indicate that Lu2O3:Eu nanophosphor is a promising scintillator for further research in digital X-ray
radiography.
Luminescent materials are employed as radiation to light converters in detectors of medical imaging systems, often
referred to as phosphor screens. Several processes affect the light transfer properties of phosphors. Amongst the most
important is the interaction of light. Light attenuation (absorption and scattering) can be described either through
"diffusion" theory in theoretical models or "quantum" theory in Monte Carlo methods. Although analytical methods,
based on photon diffusion equations, have been preferentially employed to investigate optical diffusion in the past,
Monte Carlo simulation models can overcome several of the analytical modelling assumptions. The present study aimed
to compare both methodologies and investigate the dependence of the analytical model optical parameters as a function
of particle size. It was found that the optical photon attenuation coefficients calculated by analytical modeling are
decreased with respect to the particle size (in the region 1- 12 μm). In addition, for particles sizes smaller than 6μm there
is no simultaneous agreement between the theoretical modulation transfer function and light escape values with respect
to the Monte Carlo data.
Powder phosphors scintillators are used in indirect digital radiography as x-ray to light converters coupled to electronic
optical sensors (photodiodes, CCDs, CMOS). Recently, nanophosphors have been reported to have enhanced
luminescence efficiency. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate Lu2O3:Eu nanophosphor as a candidate for
digital medical imaging applications. Lu2O3:Eu was employed in the form of a 30.2 mg/cm2 powder screen with 50 nm
grain size and 5% Eu concentration. Both the nanophosphor material and the screen were prepared in our laboratories.
Parameters such as the Absolute Efficiency-AE (light energy flux over exposure rate), the Luminescence Efficiency-
XLE (Light energy flux over incident x-ray energy flux), Detector Quantum Gain-DQG (optical quanta emitted per
incident x-ray quantum) and the light spectral compatibility to electronic optical sensors (Effective Efficiency) were
investigated under x-ray excitation in the radiographic energy range. Results were compared with previously published
data for a 33.1 mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Eu conventional phosphor screen. It was found that Lu2O3:Eu nanophosphor has higher
AE and XLE by a factor of 1.32 and 1.37 on average, respectively, in the whole radiographic energy range. DQG was
also found higher in the energy range from 50 kVp to 100 kVp and comparable thereafter. Effective efficiency was found
with high values for electronic optical sensors such as CCDs and CMOS, due to the high spectral compatibility with the
upper visible wavelength range. These results indicate that Lu2O3:Eu nanophosphor could potentially be considered for
applications in digital x-ray radiography detectors.
KEYWORDS: Refractive index, Medical imaging, Modulation transfer functions, Diffusion, Mie scattering, Optics manufacturing, Modulation, Photons, Monte Carlo methods, X-rays
The quality of medical images can be characterized by the signal transfer properties of the x-ray converter. Various
studies have previously investigated the influence of the detector configuration on the optimization of medical imaging
systems. However, novel technologies related to new luminescent materials seem to be promising for further
improvements in medical imaging instrumentation technology. The aim of this study was to investigate and optimize
granular phosphor-based X-ray converters by examining different phosphor materials with grain size in the nano-scale
(four different categories). Optical diffusion was simulated based on Mie scattering theory and the imaging performance
was predicted using Monte Carlo simulation methods. The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) of all cases were
evaluated and compared. Results showed and analyzed the relation between phosphor intrinsic properties on optical
diffusion. It was found that the resolution of the nanophosphor is directly affected by the optical parameters and becomes
better for high values of light extinction factor and light absorption probability. In particular, the present study showed
that the utilization of optimum optical parameters based on specific physical (refractive index, light wavelength) and
structural (grain size, packing density) parameters enhance manufacturers in nanophopshor synthesis and preparation to
follow particular configurations of nanophoshor composition. Finally, high optical modulation was accomplished
employing grains of high refractive index and size close to 200 nm.
Recent technologies, such as nanotechnology, provide new opportunities for next generation scintillation devices and instruments. New nanophosphor-based materials seem to be promising for further improvements in optical diffusion studies. In medical imaging, detector technology has found widespread use, offering improved signal capabilities. However, in spite of many spectacular innovations and the significant research in chemical synthesis on the detective material, improvement in signal quality is still an issue requiring further progress. Here, a sophisticated analysis is shown within the framework of Mie scattering theory and Monte Carlo simulation which demonstrates the optimum structural and optical properties of nanophosphors that are significantly promising in manufacture for further signal modulation improvement. A variety of structural and optical properties were examined: (1) phosphors of grain size (1 to 1000 nm), (2) packing density (50% to 99%), (3) light wavelength (400 to 700 nm), and (4) refractive index of nanophosphor (real part: 1.4-2.0, imaginary part: 10−6). Results showed that for a specific thickness of nanophosphor layer, the compromise between spatial resolution and sensitivity can be achieved by optimizing the structural (200 nm≤grain diameter≤800 nm) and optical properties of the nanophosphor (1.7≤refractiveindex≤2.0). Finally, high optical modulation was accomplished employing grains of high refractive index and size above 200 nm.
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