Amino acids and nucleobases are of particular interest to NASA’s science goal of “Search for life” because they are essential for life as the basic constituents of proteins and deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA). Their detection would point to possible biosignatures and potential life bearing processes and thus there is a need for technologies capable of identifying them. Raman spectroscopy provides univocal and accurate chemical characterization of organic and inorganic compounds and can be used to detect biological materials and biomarkers in the context of planetary exploration. While micro-Raman systems are useful, a remote Raman instrument can increase the analysis area around a rover or lander. At the University of Hawai‘i we developed a portable, compact time-resolved remote-Raman instrument using a small 3” diameter mirror lens telescope, and used it to demonstrate daytime detection of amino acids and nucleobases from a distance of 8 m. The measured spectra allowed us to univocally identify 20 proteinogenic amino acids, four nucleobases, and some non-proteinogenic amino acids, despite the presence of native fluorescence, especially in aromatic compounds. We were also able to distinguish between α and β amino acids, as well as between different polymorphs. We found the remote Raman system is well suited for planetary exploration applications, with no requirement for sample preparation or collection, and rapid measurement times.
The “Standoff Biofinder” is a powerful “search for life” instrument that is able to detect biomolecules from a collection of rocks and minerals in a large area with detection time less than a second using a non-contact, non-destructive approach. Biological materials show strong, short-lived fluorescence signals when excited with ultraviolet-visible (UVVis) wavelengths. The Standoff Biofinder takes advantage of the short lifetimes of bio-fluorescent materials to obtain real-time images showing the locations of biological materials among luminescent minerals in a geological context. The Standoff Biofinder uses an expanded and diffused nanosecond pulsed laser to illuminate a large geological region and a gated detector to record time-resolved fluorescence images. The instrument works in daylight as well as nighttime conditions and bio-detection capability is not affected by the background light. The instrument is able to detect both live and dead biological materials, and is a useful tool for detecting the presence of both extant and extinct life on a planetary surface. The Standoff Biofinder instrument will be suitable for locating fluorescent polyaromatic hydrocarbons, amino acids, proteins, bacteria, biominerals, photosynthetic pigments, and diagenetic products of microbial life on dry landscapes and Ocean Worlds of the outer Solar System (e.g., Enceladus, Europa, and Titan). An important feature of the Standoff Biofinder instrument is its capability to detect biomolecules which are inside ice, without sample collection.
A ground-based 2-micron Differential Absorption Lidar (DIAL) CO2 profiling system for atmospheric boundary layer studies and validation of space-based CO2 sensors is being developed and tested at NASA Langley Research Center as part of the NASA Instrument Incubator Program. To capture the variability of CO2 in the lower troposphere a precision of 1-2 ppm of CO2 ( <0.5%) with 0.5 to 1 km vertical resolution from near surface to free troposphere (4-5 km) is one of the goals of this program. In addition, a 1% (3 ppm) absolute accuracy with a 1 km resolution over 0.5 km to free troposphere (4-5 km) is also a goal of the program. This DIAL system leverages 2-micron laser technology developed under NASA’s Laser Risk Reduction Program (LRRP) and other NASA programs to develop new solid-state laser technology that provides high pulse energy, tunable, wavelength-stabilized, and double-pulsed lasers that are operable over pre-selected temperature insensitive strong CO2 absorption lines suitable for profiling of lower tropospheric CO2. It also incorporates new high quantum efficiency, high gain, and relatively low noise phototransistors, and a new receiver/signal processor system to achieve high precision DIAL measurements. This presentation describes the capabilities of this system for atmospheric CO2 and aerosol profiling. Examples of atmospheric measurements in the lidar and DIAL mode will be presented.
There exists a considerable interest in the broadband detectors for CLARREO Mission,
which can be used to detect CO2, O3, H2O, CH4, and other gases. Detection of these species
is critical for understanding the Earth's atmosphere, atmospheric chemistry, and systemic
force driving climatic changes. Discussions are focused on current and the most recent
detectors developed in SWIR-to-Far infrared range for CLARREO space-based instrument to
measure the above-mentioned species. These detector components will make instruments
designed for these critical detections more efficient while reducing complexity and associated
electronics and weight. We will review the on-going detector technology efforts in the SWIR
to Far-IR regions at different organizations in this study.
The University of Hawaii and NASA Langley Research Center are developing small, compact, and portable remote
Raman systems with pulsed lasers for planetary exploration under the Mars Instrument Development Program. The
remote Raman instruments developed previously utilized small telescopes with clear apertures of 125 mm and 100
mm diameters and were able to detect water, ice, water bearing minerals, carbon in carbonate form in calcite,
magnesite, dolomite, and siderite from a distance of 10 to 50 m under daytime and nighttime conditions. Recently,
we significantly reduced the size of our time-resolved (TR) remote Raman system in order to build a compact
system suitable for future space missions. This compact time-resolved Raman system was developed by utilizing (i)
a regular 85 mm Nikon (F/1.8) lens with a clear aperture of 50 mm as a collection optic, and (ii) a miniature Raman
spectrograph that is 1/14th in volume in comparison to the commercial spectrograph used in our previous work. In
this paper, we present the TR remote Raman spectra obtained during daytime from various hydrous and anhydrous
minerals, water, water-ice, and CO2-ice using this new compact remote Raman system to 50 m radial distance.
A compact remote Raman spectroscopy system was developed at NASA Langley Research center and was
previously demonstrated for its ability to identify chemical composition of various rocks and minerals. In
this study, the Raman sensor was utilized to perform time-resolved Raman studies of various samples such
as minerals and rocks, Azalea leaves, and a few fossil samples. The Raman sensor utilizes a pulsed 532 nm
Nd:YAG laser as excitation source, a 4-inch telescope to collect the Raman-scattered signal from a sample
several meters away, a spectrograph equipped with a holographic grating, and a gated intensified CCD
(ICCD) camera system. Time resolved Raman measurements were carried out by varying the gate delay
with fixed short gate width of the ICCD camera, allowing measurement of both Raman signals and
fluorescence signals. Rocks and mineral samples were characterized, including marble, which contains
CaCO3. Analysis of the results reveals the short (~10-13 s) lifetime of the Raman process and shows that the
Raman spectra of some mineral samples contain fluorescence emission due to organic impurities. Also
analyzed were a green (pristine) and a yellow (decayed) sample of Gardenia leaves. It was observed that
the fluorescence signals from the green and yellow leaf samples showed stronger signals compared to the
Raman lines. It was also observed that the fluorescence of the green leaf was more intense and had a
shorter lifetime than that of the yellow leaf. For the fossil samples, Raman shifted lines could not be
observed due to the presence of very strong short-lived fluorescence.
DRS Sensors & Targeting Systems with silicon materials partner Lawrence Semiconductor Research Laboratory and
development partner NASA Langley Research Center Earth Science Directorate are developing improved far-infrared
detectors for Earth energy balance observations from orbit. Our team has succeeded in demonstrating the feasibility of
extending the wavelength range of conventional arsenic-doped-silicon Blocked Impurity Band (BIB) detectors (cut-off
~28 μm) into the far infrared. The new far-IR member of the BIB detector family operates at temperatures accessible to
existing space-qualified cryocoolers, while retaining the very high values of sensitivity, stability, linearity, and
bandwidth typical of the broader class of silicon BIB detectors. The new detector should merit serious consideration for
the Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission defined by the recent National
Research Council's Decadal Survey for Earth Science. Proposed further development of this detector technology
includes wavelength extension to a goal of at least 100 μm, improvements in detector design, and implementation of
light-trapping packaging. These are developments that will enable increased radiometric accuracy, reduced spatial
smearing, and simpler calibration approaches for CLARREO.
A compact remote Raman sensor system was developed at NASA Langley Research Center. This sensor is an
improvement over the previously reported system, which consisted of a 532 nm pulsed laser, a 4-inch telescope, a
spectrograph, and an intensified CCD camera. One of the attractive features of the previous system was its portability,
thereby making it suitable for applications such as planetary surface explorations, homeland security and defense
applications where a compact portable instrument is important. The new system was made more compact by replacing
bulky components with smaller and lighter components. The new compact system uses a smaller spectrograph
measuring 9 x 4 x 4 in. and a smaller intensified CCD camera measuring 5 in. long and 2 in. in diameter. The previous
system was used to obtain the Raman spectra of several materials that are important to defense and security applications.
Furthermore, the new compact Raman sensor system is used to obtain the Raman spectra of a diverse set of materials to
demonstrate the sensor system's potential use in the identification of unknown materials.
An InGaAsSb/AlGaAsSb phototransistor has been validated for lidar atmospheric remote sensing. The validation was performed using the Raman-shifted eye-safe aerosol lidar (REAL) at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Although the device is optimized for detection around the 2-µm wavelength, the validation was performed at 1.543 µm, where mature commercial detectors are available. Simultaneous measurement of the atmospheric backscatter signals using the custom-built phototransistor and commercial InGaAs avalanche photodiode indicated good agreement between both devices. The validation included detecting 11-km-range hard targets, 5-km atmospheric structure consisting of cirrus clouds, and a near-field boundary layer. Far-field low intensity and spatially narrow atmospheric features were also detectable with the new phototransistor. Preliminary results related to systematic effects are discussed in the first attempt of incorporating a phototransistor in a lidar system.
Recent and future explorations of Mars and lunar surfaces through rovers and landers have spawned great interest in
developing an instrument that can perform in-situ analysis of minerals on planetary surfaces. Several research groups
have anticipated that for such analysis, Raman spectroscopy is the best suited technique because it can unambiguously
provide the composition and structure of a material. A remote pulsed Raman spectroscopy system for analyzing
minerals was demonstrated at NASA Langley Research Center in collaboration with the University of Hawaii. This
system utilizes a 532 nm pulsed laser as an excitation wavelength, and a telescope with a 4-inch aperture for collecting
backscattered radiation. A spectrograph equipped with a super notch filter for attenuating Rayleigh scattering is used to
analyze the scattered signal. To form the Raman spectrum, the spectrograph utilizes a holographic transmission grating
that simultaneously disperses two spectral tracks on the detector for increased spectral range. The spectrum is recorded
on an intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) camera system, which provides high gain to allow detection of
inherently weak Stokes lines. To evaluate the performance of the system, Raman standards such as calcite and
naphthalene are analyzed. Several sets of rock and mineral samples obtained from Ward's Natural Science are tested
using the Raman spectroscopy system. In addition, Raman spectra of combustible substances such acetone and isopropanol are also obtained.
High quality infrared (IR) quantum detectors are important for several applications, such as atmospheric remote sensing, chemical detection and absorption spectroscopy. Although several IR detectors are commercially available, with different materials and structures, they provide limited performance regarding the signal-to-noise ratio and the corresponding minimum detectable signal. InGaAsSb/AlGaAsSb heterojunction based phototransistors show strong potential for developing IR sensors with improved performance.
In this paper, the performance of a novel n-p-n InGaAsSb/AlGaAsSb heterojunction phototransistor is presented. This performance study is based on experimental characterization of the device dark current, noise and spectral response. Detectivity of 1.7x109 cmHz 1/2/W at 2-μm was obtained at 100°C temperature and 2 V bias voltage. This corresponds to a responsivity of 94.7 A/W and an internal gain of 156 with about 38% quantum efficiency. Reducing the temperature to -30°C allows to increase the bias to 3V and enhance the detectivity to 8.7x1010 cmHz1/2/W at the same wavelength, which corresponds to a responsivity of 386.5 A/W and an internal gain of 288.2 with about 83% quantum efficiency. The device impulse response and linearity, including the corresponding dynamic range, also are presented. Impulse response analysis indicated a settling time of about 1.1 μs at 2V and 100°C, while linearity measurements indicated a constant responsivity in the radiation intensity range of 1.6x10-7 W/cm2 and 31.6 mW/cm2.
Multicolor detectors have a strong potential to replace conventional single-color detectors in application dealing with the simultaneous detection of more than one wavelength. This will lead to the reduction of heavy and complex optical components now required for spectral discrimination for multi-wavelengths applications. This multicolor technology is simpler, lighter, compact and cheaper with respect to the single-color ones. In this paper, Sb-based two-color detectors fabrication and characterization are presented. The color separation is achieved by fabricating dual band pn junction on a GaSb substrate. The first band consists of an InGaAsSb pn junction for long wavelength detection, while the second band consists of a GaSb pn junction for shorter wavelength detection. Three metal contacts were deposited to access the individual junctions. Surface morphology of multi-layer thin films and also device characteristics of quasi-dual band photodetector were characterized using standard optical microscope and electro-optic techniques respectively. Dark current measurements illustrated the diode behavior of both lattice-matched detector bands. Spectral response measurements indicated either independent operation of both detectors simultaneously, or selective operation of one detector, by the polarity of the bias voltage, while serially accessing both devices.
For exploration of planetary surfaces, detection of water and ice is of great interest in supporting existence of life on other planets. Therefore, a remote Raman spectroscopy system was demonstrated at NASA Langley Research Center in collaboration with the University of Hawaii for detecting ice-water and hydrous minerals on planetary surfaces. In this study, a 532 nm pulsed laser is utilized as an excitation source to allow detection in high background radiation conditions. The Raman scattered signal is collected by a 4-inch telescope positioned in front of a spectrograph. The Raman spectrum is analyzed using a spectrograph equipped with a holographic super notch filter to eliminate Rayleigh scattering, and a holographic transmission grating that simultaneously disperses two spectral tracks onto the detector for higher spectral range. To view the spectrum, the spectrograph is coupled to an intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD), which allows detection of very weak Stokes line. The ICCD is operated in gated mode to further suppress effects from background radiation and long-lived fluorescence. The sample is placed at 5.6 m from the telescope, and the laser is mounted on the telescope in a coaxial geometry to achieve maximum performance. The system was calibrated using the spectral lines of a Neon lamp source. To evaluate the system, Raman standard samples such as calcite, naphthalene, acetone, and isopropyl alcohol were analyzed. The Raman evaluation technique was used to analyze water, ice and other hydrous minerals and results from these species are presented.
We present room-temperature AlGaAsSb/InGaAsSb heterojunction phototransistors (HPT) with a cutoff wavelength (50% of maximum quantum efficiency) of 2.4 μm and 2.15 μm. AlGaAsSb/InGaAsSb HPT structures were grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) or metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). This work is a continuation of a preceding project, which was carried out using liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) grown AlGaAsSb/InGaAsSb/GaSb heterostructures. Although the LPE-related work resulted in the fabrication of an HPT with excellent parameters, MBE and MOCVD - compared to LPE - provides better control over doping levels, composition and width of the AlGaAsSb and InGaAsSb layers, compositional and doping profiles, especially with regard to abrupt heterojunctions. HPT with different diameter of photosensitive area (75, 200, 300 and 1000 μm) were fabricated and characterized. In particular, I-V characteristics, spectral response and noise, as well as detectivity and noise-equivalent-power were determined in a broad range of temperatures and bias voltages. Advantages of HPT integration with diffractive optical elements (DOE) were demonstrated.
A model of the spectral responsivity of In1–GaSb p-n junction infrared photodetectors is developed. This model is based on calculations of the photogenerated and diffusion currents in the device. Expressions for the carrier mobilities, absorption coefficient, and normal-incidence reflectivity as a function of temperature are derived from extensions made to Adachi and Caughey-Thomas models. Contributions from the Auger recombination mechanism, which increase with a rise in temperature, are also considered. The responsivity is evaluated for different doping levels, diffusion depths, operating temperatures, and photon energies. Parameters calculated from the model are compared with available experimental data, and good agreement is obtained. These theoretical calculations help us to better understand the electro-optical behavior of In1–GaSb photodetectors, and can be utilized for performance enhancement through optimization of the device structure.
Sb-based dual-band detectors were fabricated and characterized. The first band consists of an InGaAsSb pn junction for long wavelength detection, while the second band consists of a GaSb pn junction for shorter wavelength detection. Both bands were grown, lattice-matched to a GaSb substrate, using metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy. Three metal contacts were deposited to access the individual junctions. Spectral response measurements indicated either independent operation of both detectors simultaneously, or bias selective operation for one detector while serially accessing both devices.
InP/InGaAs avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are being widely utilized in optical receivers for modern long haul and high bit-rate optical fiber communication systems. The separate absorption, grading, charge, and multiplication (SAGCM) structure is an important design consideration for APDs with high performance characteristics. Time domain modeling techniques have been previously developed to provide better understanding and optimize design issues by saving time and cost for the APD research and development. In this work, performance dependences on multiplication layer thickness have been investigated by time domain modeling. These performance characteristics include breakdown field and breakdown voltage, multiplication gain, excess noise factor, frequency response and bandwidth etc. The simulations are performed versus various multiplication layer thicknesses with certain fixed values for the areal charge sheet density whereas the values for the other structure and material parameters are kept unchanged. The frequency response is obtained from the impulse response by fast Fourier transformation. The modeling results are presented and discussed, and design considerations, especially for high speed operation at 10 Gbit/s, are further analyzed.
NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC), in partnership with the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), developed photovoltaic infrared (IR) detectors suitable at two different wavelengths using Sb-based material systems. Using lattice-matched InGaAsSb grown on GaSb substrates, dual wavelength detectors operating at 1.7 and 2.5 micron wavelengths can be realized. P-N junction diodes are fabricated on both GaSb and InGaAsSb materials. The photodiode on GaSb detects wavelengths at 1.7 micron and the InGaAsSb detector detects wavelengths at 2.2 micron or longer depending on the composition. The films for these devices are grown by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). The cross section of the independently accessed back-to-back photodiode dual band detector consists of a p-type substrate on which n-on-p GaInAsSb junction is grown, followed by a p-on-n GaSb junction. There are three ohmic contacts in this structure, one to the p-GaSb top layer, one to the n-GaSb/n-GaInAsSb layer and one to the p-type GaSb substrate. The common terminal is the contact to the n-GaSb/n-GaInAsSb layer. The contact to the n-GaSb/p-GaInAsSb region of the photodiode in the dual band is electrically connected and is accessed at the edge of the photodiode. NASA LaRC acquired the fabricated dual band detector from RPI and characterized the detector at its Detector Characterization Laboratory. Characterization results, such as responsivity, noise, quantum efficiency, and detectivity will be presented.
Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) of GaSb/InGaAsSb multilayer thin films and fabrication of bias-selectable dual band photodetectors are reported. For the dual band photodetectors the short wavelength detector, or the upper p-GaSb/n-GaSb junction photodiode, is placed optically ahead of the long wavelength one, or the lower photodiode. The latter is based on latticed-matched In0.13Ga0.87As0.11Sb0.89with bandgap near 0.6 eV. Specifically, high quality multilayer thin films are grown sequentially from top to bottom as p+-GaSb/p-GaSb/n-GaSb/n-InGaAsSb/p-InGaAsSb/p-GaSb on undoped p-type GaSb substrate, and as n-GaSb/p-GaSb/p-InGaAsSb/n-InGaAsSb/n-GaSb on Te-doped n-type GaSb substrate respectively. The multilayer thin films are characterized by optical microscope, atomic force microscope (AFM), electron microprobe analyses etc. The photodiode mesa steps are patterned by photolithography with wet chemical etching and the front metallization is carried out by e-beam evaporation with Pd/Ge/Au/Ti/Au to give ohmic contact on both n- and p-type Sb based layer surfaces. Dark I-V measurements show typical diode behavior for both the upper and lower photodiodes. The photoresponsivity measurements indicate that both the upper and lower photodiodes can sense the infrared illumination corresponding to their cutoff wavelengths respectively, comparable with the simulation results. More work is underway to bring the long wavelength band to the medium infrared wavelength region near 4 μm.
Profiling of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is important for understanding the natural carbon cycle on Earth and its influence on global warming and climate change. Differential absorption lidar is a powerful remote sensing technique used for profiling and monitoring atmospheric constituents. Recently there has been an interest to apply this technique, at the 2 μm wavelength, for investigating atmospheric CO2. This drives the need for high quality detectors at this wavelength. Although 2 μm detectors are commercially available, the quest for a better detector is still on. The detector performance, regarding quantum efficiency, gain and associated noise, affects the DIAL signal-to-noise ratio and background signal, thereby influencing the instrument sensitivity and dynamic range. Detectors based on the III-V based compound materials shows a strong potential for such application.
In this paper the detector requirements for a long range CO2 DIAL profiles will be discussed. These requirements were compared to newly developed III-V compound infrared detectors. The performance of ternary InGaSb pn junction devices will be presented using different substrates, as well as quaternary InGaAsSb npn structure. The performance study was based on experimental characterization of the devices dark current, spectral response, gain and noise. The final results are compared to the current state-of-the-art InGaAs technology. Npn phototransistor structure showed the best performance, regarding the internal gain and therefore the device signal-to-noise ratio. 2-μm detectivity as high as 3.9x1011 cmHz1/2/W was obtained at a temperature of -20°C and 4 V bias voltage. This corresponds to a responsivity of 2650 A/W with about 60% quantum efficiency.
An Indium Gallium Arsenide linear photodiode array in the 1.1-2.5 μm spectral range was characterized. The array has 1024X1 pixels with a 25 μm pitch and was manufactured by Sensors Unlimited, Inc. Characterization and analysis of the electrical and optical properties of a camera system were carried out at room temperature to obtain detector performance parameters. The signal and noise were measured while the array was uniformly illuminated at varying exposure levels. A photon transfer curve was generated by plotting noise as a function of average signal to obtain the camera gain constant. The spectral responsivity was also measured, and the quantum efficiency, read noise and full-well capacity were determined. This paper describes the characterization procedure, analyzes the experimental results, and discusses the applications of the InGaAs linear array to future earth and planetary remote sensing mission.
Custom-designed charge-coupled devices (CCD) for Gas and Aerosols Monitoring Sensorcraft instrument were developed. These custom-designed CCD devices are linear arrays with pixel format of 512x1 elements and pixel size of 10x200 μm2. These devices were characterized at NASA Langley Research Center to achieve a full well capacity as high as 6,000,000 e-. This met the aircraft flight mission requirements in terms of signal-to-noise performance and maximum dynamic range. Characterization and analysis of the electrical and optical properties of the CCDs were carried out at
room temperature. This includes measurements of photon transfer curves, gain coefficient histograms, read noise, and spectral response. Test results obtained on these devices successfully demonstrated the objectives of the aircraft flight mission. In this paper, we describe the characterization results and also discuss their applications to future mission.
A multilayered infrared Ge/Si quantum-dot photodetector is fabricated by pulsed laser deposition. Forty successive Ge quantum dot layers, each covered with a thin Si layer, are deposited. Deposition is monitored by in situ reflection high-energy electron diffraction and the morphology is further studied by ex situ atomic force microscopy. Current-voltage measurements reveal typical diode characteristics, while responsivity measurements show an absorption peak around a 2-μm wavelength
Knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution of atmospheric species such as CO2, O3, H2O, and CH4 is important for understanding the chemistry and physical cycles involving Earth's atmosphere. Although several remote sensing techniques are suitable for such measurements they are considered high cost techniques involving complicated instrumentation. Therefore, simultaneous measurement of atmospheric species using a single remote sensing instrument is significant for minimizing cost, size and complexity. While maintaining the instrument sensitivity and range, quality of multicolor detector, in terms of high quantum efficiency and low noise are vital for these missions. As the first step for developing multicolor focal plan array, the structure of a single element multicolor detector is presented in this paper. The detector consists of three p-n junction layers of Si, GaSb and InAs wafer bonded to cover the spectral range UV to 900 nm, 800 nm to 1.7 micron, and 1.5 micron to 3.4 micron, respectively. Modeling of the absorption coefficient for each material was carried out for optimizing the layers thicknesses for maximum absorption. The resulted quantum efficiency of each layer has been determined except InAs layer. The optical and electrical characterization of each layer structure is reported including dark current and spectral response measurements of Si pin structure and of GaSb and InAs p-n junctions. The effect of the material processing is discussed.
Near infrared detectors in the 1 to 2.4 μm spectral range are important for many applications such as atmospheric remote sensing, where several species have strong absorption spectra in that range. Antimonide-based III-V compound semiconductor materials are good candidates for developing detectors in that spectral range. Electrical and optical characteristics of In1-xGaxSb p-n photodetectors at different temperatures are presented. The devices were fabricated either on bulk InGaSb substrates by zinc diffusion or InGaSb epitaxial layers grown on GaSb substrates by organo-metallic vapor phase epitaxy (OMVPE). Variable area devices were fabricated. Current-voltage measurements indicated higher dark current in InGaSb devices grown on GaSb substrate, due to defects generated by the lattice-mismatch. Spectral response measurements were obtained in the 1 to 2.4 μm wavelength range at different temperatures. At room temperature, the cut-off wavelengths were observed at 2.3 and 2.1 μm for InGaSb devices grown on GaSb and for devices fabricated on bulk InGaSb substrates respectively. Reducing the operating temperature shifts the cut-off wavelength to shorter values and increases the responsivity. Noise calculations indicated a room temperature detectivities of 3.3x1010 and 5.5x1010 cmHz1/2/W at 2 μm for the GaSb and InGaSb respectively. Detectivity variation with wavelength will be presented and compared to the background limited performance.
Two-micron detectors are critical for atmospheric CO2 profiling using the lidar technique. InGaAs and HgCdTe detectors are commercially available for this wavelength but they lack sufficient gain, which limits their detectivity. The characterization results of a novel AlGaAsSb/InGaAsSb phototransistor for 2-µm application are reported. The device was developed by AstroPower, Inc. for NASA Langley Research Center. Spectral response measurements showed the highest responsivity in a 1.9- to 2.1-µm region with a maximum value of 2650 A/W at 2 µm. A 2-µm detectivity of 3.9×1011 cm Hz1/2/W was obtained, which corresponds to noise equivalent power of 4.6×10–14 W/Hz1/2.
Optical and electrical characteristics of InGaSb p-n photodetectors are presented at different temperatures. The device structures were grown on GaSb substrates using organic metal vapor phase epitaxy. Spectral calibration indicates peak responsivity around 2 µm, equivalent to 58% quantum efficiency, with 2.3-µm cutoff at room temperature. Reducing the device temperature increases the responsivity and shifts the cutoff wavelength to a shorter value. Current voltage measurements at different temperatures indicate that tunneling is the primary leakage current mechanism. Assuming Johnson limited performance, detectivity calculations resulted in 4×1010 cm Hz1/2/W indicating that InGaSb is a superior material for 2-µm detection applications.
Knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is important for understanding the carbon natural cycle, predicting its future levels and its impact on global warming and climate changes. Laser technology has advanced considerably during the past few years in the 2-micron region where strong optimum lines are available for measuring CO2 using the Differential Absorption Lidar (DIAL) technique. Although several types of detectors might be suitable for this particular wavelength, an ideal device would have high gain, low noise and narrow spectral response peaking around the wavelength of interest. This increases the signal-to-noise ratio and minimizes the background signal, thereby increasing the instrument sensitivity and dynamic range. In this paper the detector requirements for a long range CO2 DIAL measurement will be presented. The requirements were compared to commercially available and newly developed infrared (IR) detectors. The IR detectors considered for this study consist of the well developed InGaAs and HgCdTe p-n junction photodiodes, beside the newly developed and proposed InGaAsSb and InGaSb detectors. All of the detectors were characterized and their performances were compared with the CO2 DIAL detector requirements. The characterization experiments included spectral response, dark current and noise measurements. CO2 DIAL measurements using InGaAs detectors were attempted and indicated the need for better detector performance. While InGaAs detectors showed the closest performance to the instrument requirements, InGaSb detectors indicated a promising solution.
A major concern today is to accurately measure CO2, O3, H2O, and CH4 in the atmosphere for the prediction of climate and weather. These measurements are critical for understanding the Earth's atmosphere, atmospheric chemistry, and systemic forcing driving climactic changes. For these measurements, detectors with high quantum efficiency and near background limited performance detectivity over a wide wavelength range are necessary. In this article, we will review the state-of-the-art single and multicolor detector technologies in a wide spectral-range, for use in space-based and airborne remote sensing applications. Simultaneous detection in multi-wavelength bands with a single focal plane array (FPA) will result in reduction or elimination of heavy and complex optical components now required for wavelength differentiation in atmospheric remote sensors leading to smaller, lighter, simpler instruments with higher performance. Discussions are focused on current and the most recently developed FPA in addition to emphasizing future development in UV-to-Far infrared multicolor FPA detectors for next generation space-based instruments to measure water vapor and greenhouse gases. This novel detector component will make instruments designed for these critical measurements more efficient while reducing complexity and associated electronics and weight. Finally, we will discuss the on-going detector technology efforts at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC), Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI).
Profiling of atmospheric CO2 at 2 μm wavelength using the LIDAR technique, has recently gained interest. Although several
detectors might be suitable for this application, an ideal device would have high gain, low noise and narrow spectral response peaking around the wavelength of interest. This increases the detector signal-to-noise ratio and minimizes the background signal, thereby increasing the device sensitivity and dynamic range. Detectors meeting the above idealized criteria are commercially unavailable for this particular wavelength. In this paper, the characterization and analysis of Sb-based detectors for 2 μm lidar applications are presented. The detectors were manufactured by AstroPower, Inc., with an InGaAsSb absorbing layer and AlGaAsSb passivating layer. The characterization experiments included spectral response, current versus voltage and noise measurements. The effect of the detectors bias voltage and temperature on its performance, have been investigated as well. The detectors peak responsivity is located at the 2 μm wavelength. Comparing three detector samples, an optimization of the spectral response around the 2 μm wavelength, through a narrower spectral period was observed. Increasing the detector bias voltage enhances the device gain at the narrow spectral range, while cooling the device reduces the cut-off wavelength and lowers its noise. Noise-equivalent-power analysis results in a value as low as 4x10-12 W/Hz1/2 corresponding to D* of 1x1010 cmHz1/2/W, at -1 V and 20°C. Discussions also include device operational physics and optimization guidelines, taking into account peculiarity of the Type II heterointerface and transport mechanisms under these conditions.
The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) III requires a detector that provides spectral coverage from 280 - 1050 nm. In order to achieve higher responsivity at the ultra-violet wavelengths a backside-thinned silicon CCD technology was chosen. For strength, the backside-thinned detector was bonded to a soda glass substrate. The device thinness allowed the long near infrared wavelengths to pass through the silicon, scatter off the soda glass, and cause cross talk into nearby pixels. Reflections from the soda glass caused etalon-like effects and gave the thinned CCD a highly temperature dependent response. These difficulties led the project manager to examine different options for a replacement detector. Photodiode/CCD technology based on the Moderate- Resolution Imaging Spectrometer-Tilt (MODIS-T) and Gas and Aerosol Monitoring Sensorcraft (GAMS) detectors systems was combined and used to design and fabricate a backup detector for the SAGE III program. The device design and characterization are presented. The design focused on elimination of the scattering due to the soda glass and the temperature dependent etalon effect, increasing charge storage capacity. The detector was designed to allow a retrofit with the existing SAGE III spectrometer. The primary disadvantage of the new detector is its loss of responsivity at the shorter wavelengths.
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