In this work, we aim to develop a virtual platform to compare the performance of the different manifestations of photon Time of Flight Spectroscopy namely Direct, Indirect and Interferometric photon Time of Flight Spectroscopy (pToFS). Extending the comparison over a range of scenarios, defined by a matrix of optical properties (dubbed here as Virtual Tissue), allows for the definition of different use cases for each of these techniques. The effect of parameters like temporal drift, exposure time and background noise will also be studied.
SignificanceInterstitial fiber-based spectroscopy is gaining interest for real-time in vivo optical biopsies, endoscopic interventions, and local monitoring of therapy. Different from other photonics approaches, time-domain diffuse optical spectroscopy (TD-DOS) can probe the tissue at a few cm distance from the fiber tip and disentangle absorption from the scattering properties. Nevertheless, the signal detected at a short distance from the source is strongly dominated by the photons arriving early at the detector, thus hampering the possibility of resolving late photons, which are rich in information about depth and absorption.AimTo fully benefit from the null-distance approach, a detector with an extremely high dynamic range is required to effectively collect the late photons; the goal of our paper is to test its feasibility to perform TD-DOS measurements at null source–detector separations (NSDS).ApproachIn particular, we demonstrate the use of a superconducting nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD) to perform TD-DOS at almost NSDS ( ≈ 150 μm ) by exploiting the high dynamic range and temporal resolution of the SNSPD to extract late arriving, deep-traveling photons from the burst of early photons.ResultsThis approach was demonstrated both on Monte Carlo simulations and on phantom measurements, achieving an accuracy in the retrieval of the water spectrum of better than 15%, spanning almost two decades of absorption change in the 700- to 1100-nm range. Additionally, we show that, for interstitial measurements at null source–detector distance, the scattering coefficient has a negligible effect on late photons, easing the retrieval of the absorption coefficient.ConclusionsUtilizing the SNSPD, broadband TD-DOS measurements were performed to successfully retrieve the absorption spectra of the liquid phantoms. Although the SNSPD has certain drawbacks for use in a clinical system, it is an emerging field with research progressing rapidly, and this makes the SNSPD a viable option and a good solution for future research in needle guided time-domain interstitial fiber spectroscopy.
SignificancePhantoms play a critical role in the development of biophotonics techniques. There is a lack of novel phantom tools in the emerging field of upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) for biophotonics application. This work provides a range of UCNP-based phantom tools and a manufacturing recipe to bridge the gap and accelerate the development of UCNP-based biophotonics applications.AimThe study aims to provide a well-characterized UCNP-based solid phantom recipe and set of phantom tools to address a wide range of UCNP-based biophotonics applications.ApproachA solid phantom recipe based on silicone matrix was developed to manufacture UCNP-based phantoms. A lab built UCNP imaging system was used to characterize upconverted fluorescence emission of phantoms for linearity, homogeneity, and long-term stability. A photon time-of-flight spectroscopy technique was used to characterize the optical properties of the phantoms.ResultsIn total, 24 phantoms classified into 4 types, namely homogeneous, multilayer, inclusion, and base phantoms, were manufactured. The phantoms exhibit linear behavior over the dosage range of UCNPs. The phantoms were found to be stable over a limited observed period of 4 months with a coefficient of variation of < 4 % . The deep tissue imaging case showed that increasing the thickness of tissue reduced the UCNP emission.ConclusionsA first-of-its-kind UCNP-based solid phantom recipe was developed, and four types of UCNP phantom tools to explore biophotonics applications were presented. The UCNP phantoms exhibited a linear behavior with dosage and were stable over time. An example case showed the potential use of the phantom for deep tissue imaging applications. With recent advance in the use of UCNPs for biophotonics, we believe our recipe and tools will play a pivotal role in the growth of the UCNPs for biophotonics applications.
We demonstrate a novel realization of Interstitial fiber, broadband, Time Domain Diffuse Optical Spectroscopy (TD-DOS) in Null Source-Detector separation (NSDS) approach without temporal gating, by using a Super-conducting Nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD) for acquisition. We test its feasibility by performing Monte Carlo simulations and comparing the absorption retrieval of the SNSPD with an ideal scenario and a standard Silicon Photomultiplier (SiPM). Consequently, as per the MEDPHOT protocol, we test experimentally, the absorption linearity of the system on tissue-equivalent liquid phantoms and demonstrate the scattering independent retrieval of the absorption spectrum of water using Intralipid phantoms in the wavelength range of 600-1100 nm.
Phantoms play a critical role in the development of biophotonics techniques. There is currently a lack of solid phantoms relevant to the emerging field of upconverting nanoparticles (UCNP) for biophotonics application. This work intends to showcase a range of UCNP-based phantom models and manufacturing recipe to bridge the gap and accelerate the development of UCNP-based biophotonics applications. A total of 24 phantoms were classified into 4 different categories: homogeneous, multilayer, tumour inclusion and UCNP background phantoms were manufactured and an example use case was explored. The optical properties (absorption, reduced scattering and UCNP emission) of these phantoms were found to be stable over a period of 4 months with CV < 4%. With the recent advances in the use of UCNP for biophotonics, we believe our recipe and tools will play a pivotal role in the growth of the UCNP for biophotonics applications.
Respiratory and pulmonary illnesses such as respiratory distress syndrome and transient tachypnoea of the newborn are leading causes of death among newborns. These morbidities result in lung collapse and reduction in the lung gas volume. While these conditions can be treated using surfactant administration and supplemental oxygen, continuous feedback on the health of the lung during these procedures can be helpful in improving their efficiency and avoiding later complications. Optical techniques like GASMAS (Gas in scattering media absorption spectroscopy) have shown considerable promise in this regard. The technique is non-invasive and non-ionizing and causes no short term or long term discomfort to the infant. It also allows for real time continuous monitoring of the oxygen content which is critical in a clinical setting. In this work, we discuss the results from a pilot clinical study performed at the INFANT Research Centre, Cork. A GASMAS device was used to measure the oxygen concentration of the lung in this healthy cohort of 100 healthy neonatal infants between 1 to 5 days of age. Lung oxygen concentration was measured at multiple locations and across multiple visits for each infant. The huge dataset allows us to understand the influence of different parameters such as the weight of the infant, chest circumference, location etc, on the instrument performance and recovered oxygen concentration. This information and understanding will set the stage for the next phase of the study which is aimed at a similar cohort of term and pre-term infants with respiratory morbidities.
Significance: Multi-laboratory initiatives are essential in performance assessment and standardization—crucial for bringing biophotonics to mature clinical use—to establish protocols and develop reference tissue phantoms that all will allow universal instrument comparison.
Aim: The largest multi-laboratory comparison of performance assessment in near-infrared diffuse optics is presented, involving 28 instruments and 12 institutions on a total of eight experiments based on three consolidated protocols (BIP, MEDPHOT, and NEUROPT) as implemented on three kits of tissue phantoms. A total of 20 synthetic indicators were extracted from the dataset, some of them defined here anew.
Approach: The exercise stems from the Innovative Training Network BitMap funded by the European Commission and expanded to include other European laboratories. A large variety of diffuse optics instruments were considered, based on different approaches (time domain/frequency domain/continuous wave), at various stages of maturity and designed for different applications (e.g., oximetry, spectroscopy, and imaging).
Results: This study highlights a substantial difference in hardware performances (e.g., nine decades in responsivity, four decades in dark count rate, and one decade in temporal resolution). Agreement in the estimates of homogeneous optical properties was within 12% of the median value for half of the systems, with a temporal stability of <5 % over 1 h, and day-to-day reproducibility of <3 % . Other tests encompassed linearity, crosstalk, uncertainty, and detection of optical inhomogeneities.
Conclusions: This extensive multi-laboratory exercise provides a detailed assessment of near-infrared Diffuse optical instruments and can be used for reference grading. The dataset—available soon in an open data repository—can be evaluated in multiple ways, for instance, to compare different analysis tools or study the impact of hardware implementations.
Significance: Tissue-like solid phantoms with identical optical properties, known within tolerant uncertainty, are of crucial importance in diffuse optics for instrumentation assessment, interlaboratory comparison studies, industrial standards, and multicentric clinical trials.
Aim: The reproducibility in fabrication of homogeneous solid phantoms is focused based on spectra measurements by instrument comparisons grounded on the time-resolved diffuse optics.
Approach: Epoxy-resin and silicone phantoms are considered as matrices and both employ three different instruments for time-resolved diffuse spectroscopy within the spectral range of 540 to 1100 nm. In particular, we fabricated two batches of five phantoms each in epoxy resin and silicone. Then, we evaluated the intra- and interbatch variability with respect to the instrument precision, by considering the coefficient of variation (CV) of absorption and reduced scattering coefficients.
Results: We observed a similar precision for the three instruments, within 2% for repeated measurements on the same phantom. For epoxy-resin phantoms, the intra- and the interbatch variability reached the instrument precision limit, demonstrating a very good phantom reproducibility. For the silicone phantoms, we observed larger values for intra- and interbatch variability. In particular, at worst, for reduced scattering coefficient interbatch CV was about 5%.
Conclusions: Results suggest that the fabrication of solid phantoms, especially considering epoxy-resin matrix, is highly reproducible, even if they come from different batch fabrications and are measured using different instruments.
We propose a standardized approach for performance assessment and quality-control of the novel VASCOVID system based on optical phantoms. This approach is tailored to meet the requirements of the Medical Device Regulation, and is extendable to other biophotonics devices.
A standardized approach to develop a reliable, reproducible, stable phantoms was proposed. A well-established instrument validation protocol (MEDPHOT) was adopted for this purpose. This approach was tested on two phantom recipes (silicone and polyurethane) over broadband (600-1100 nm) wavelength covering a wider range of optical properties (absorption 0.1-1 cm-1, reduced scattering 5-20 cm-1) relevant to human tissue. As an application of the recipe, a reliable tissue-mimicking 3D anthropomorphic head phantom was presented.
We have addressed the challenge of investigating the lung using diffuse optics along four different directions, namely: 1) broadband time-domain diffuse optics (TD-DO) in the 600-1100 nm range to derive the mean chest optical properties; 2) Monte Carlo simulations to investigate the depth-sensitivity of TD-DO measurements assuming a layered structure of the chest; 3) single-wavelength TD-DO using a high power pulsed laser on 5 healthy volunteers on a dynamic protocol; 4) single-wavelength TD-DO measurements using a novel large area Silicon Photomultiplier (SIPM) detector module permitting acquisitions at 12 cm source-detector distance.
Time-domain diffuse optics exploits near infrared light pulses diffused in turbid samples to retrieve their optical properties e.g., absorption and reduced scattering coefficients. Typically, interference effect are discarded, but speckle effects are exploited in other techniques e.g., diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) to retrieve information regarding the tissue dynamics. Here, using a highly coherent Ti:Sapphire mode-locked laser and a single-mode detection fiber, we report the direct observation of temporal fluctuations in the measured distribution of time-of-flights (DTOF) curve. We study the dependence of these fluctuations on the sample dynamical properties (moving from fluid to rigid tissue-mimicking phantoms) and on the area of the detection fiber, which is directly linked to the number of collected coherence areas. Our observation agree with a time-resolved speckle pattern, and may enable the simultaneous monitoring of the tissue optical and dynamical properties.
The ability to non-invasively monitor in-vivo the human muscle and adipose tissue is of great practical use and hence of growing interest in the fields of clinical diagnostics and preventive medicine. Optical methods, such as diffuse optical spectroscopy (DOS) applied in the near-infrared spectral region could be of great interest in clinical scenario. In this work, we present a pilot study based on multi-distance broadband time-domain diffuse optical spectroscopy (TD DOS) to characterize in vivo the subcutaneous adipose tissue (abdominal region) and the vastus lateralis muscle (thigh region). The study was performed using a fully automated portable TD DOS instrument on a set of 24 healthy adult volunteers. The optical properties of these two tissue types were obtained over the broad wavelength range of 600-1100 nm. The results suggest a clear influence of the stratified nature of the two regions considered, namely the abdomen and thigh, on the recovered optical properties. This work demonstrates how multi-distance broadband diffuse optical spectroscopy could be complimentary in fields like the non-invasive spectroscopy of adipose tissue and the standard DOS-based muscle oximetry.
Performance assessment and standardization are indispensable for instruments of clinical relevance in general and clinical instrumentation based on photon migration/diffuse optics in particular. In this direction, a multi-laboratory exercise was initiated with the aim of assessing and comparing their performances. 29 diffuse optical instruments belonging to 11 partner institutions of a European level Marie Curie Consortium BitMap1 were considered for this exercise. The enrolled instruments covered different approaches (continuous wave, CW; frequency domain, FD; time domain, TD and spatial frequency domain imaging, SFDI) and applications (e.g. mammography, oximetry, functional imaging, tissue spectroscopy). 10 different tests from 3 well-accepted protocols, namely, the MEDPHOT2 , the BIP3 , and the nEUROPt4 protocols were chosen for the exercise and the necessary phantoms kits were circulated across labs and institutions enrolled in the study. A brief outline of the methodology of the exercise is presented here. Mainly, the design of some of the synthetic descriptors, (single numeric values used to summarize the result of a test and facilitate comparison between instruments) for some of the tests will be discussed.. Future actions of the exercise aim at deploying these measurements onto an open data repository and investigating common analysis tools for the whole dataset.
The change in the optical properties of tissue during thermal treatment can be potentially used to monitor procedures like Radiofrequency Ablation (RFA). We present key features in the optical absorption and scattering of tissue during the RFA procedure and during post-ablation cooling down to room temperature. We have used time-resolved diffuse optical spectroscopy for the measurement of the optical properties of tissue for the wavelengths from 650 to 1100 nm. Ex vivo experiments were conducted using a clinical RFA system on bovine liver tissue. Measurements were performed for two temperatures (70°C and 105°C). The following features were observed in the optical properties. First, there was a decrease in optical absorption and an increase in scattering during the treatment. With overtreatment, the absorption increased for initial part of the spectrum (until 910 nm) and scattering decreased in comparison to normal treatment. Secondly, a redshift of the hemoglobin peak and blue shift around water peak was observed in the optical absorption. Finally, a new peak around 840 nm and a valley around 920 nm appeared with heating. When the tissue was allowed to cool down, most of the changes in the absorption around the water peak partially reversed including the blue shift and the valley around 920 nm. Additionally scattering decreased with cooling. Results show key features in the optical properties of tissue during RFA, the effect of overtreatment and post-treatment cooling in ex vivo tissue. Insights from this study will help in advancing optical methods in monitoring thermal treatment.
In the last decade, multimodal imaging raised increasing interest to overcome the limits of single techniques and improve the diagnostic potential during the same examination. This gives rise to the need for phantoms and procedures for standardizing performance assessment of the multimodal instrument. The SOLUS1 project adopts this methodology with the aim to build a multimodal instrument (based on diffuse optics -DO-, shear wave elastography -SWE-, and ultrasound imaging -US-) to increase the specificity of breast cancer diagnosis. Here we propose a long-lasting phantom based on silicone material (easier to manipulate with respect to other material for bimodal phantom such as polyvinyl alcohol, PVA) and suitable for both diffuse optical imaging/tomography and ultrasound acquisitions, designed within the SOLUS project. To achieve this goal, we explored a new silicone material for diffuse optics and ultrasound (Ecoflex 00-30), creating a new fabrication recipe and demonstrating its suitability for multimodal imaging if coupled to another silicone elastomer (Sylgard 184), featuring similar optical and acoustical performances except for the echogenicity. The main advantage of the proposed phantom is the capability of tuning independently optical and acoustical performances, thus allowing one to mimic a wide range of clinical scenarios.
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is minimally invasive thermotherapy, where a heating source is used to target and kill malignant cells in a tissue. While RFA has tremendous potential in the field of oncology, there is also a need for reliable real-time monitoring of this procedure to avoid over or under treatment. In this work, we investigate the use of timeresolved diffuse optical spectroscopy (DOS) to continuously track the change in optical properties during RFA to monitor the process of ablation. The time evolution of the spectra of the optical properties of the tissue undergoing treatment gives deep insights into the structural and constitutional changes occurring during the RFA treatment.
In this paper we present the ex-vivo characterization of a full-custom made multi-wavelength, two channel Time-Resolved Spectroscopy (TRS) module developed with the aim of being integrated in to a multi-modal spectroscopic device. This module overcomes all the main drawbacks of systems based on time-domain techniques such as high complexity and bulkiness while guaranteeing performances comparable to expensive state-of-the-art available devices. Each subcomponent of the module has been tailored and optimized to meet all the above-mentioned requirements. In order to assess and translate the performances of these tools for effective clinical use, we characterized the system following the guidelines of common standardization protocols. By following MEDPHOT guidelines, the linearity and accuracy in retrieving absolute values of absorption and scattering coefficients were determined by means of measurements on homogeneous phantoms. Finally, by means of a mechanically switchable solid inhomogeneous phantom (developed under the nEUROPT project) we simulated the clinical problem of detecting and localizing an absorption perturbation in a homogeneous background with broad applications such as detection of cancer lesions, thyroid, etc.
We present a well-tested, broadband (600-1100 nm) characterized phantom recipe to manufacture tissue mimicking optical phantoms over a wider range of optical properties (absorption 0.1-1 cm-1, reduced scattering 5-25 cm-1) relevant to human organs. The results of various tests like linearity, reproducibility, homogeneity showed the phantom recipe is robust with less than 4 % coefficient of variation (CV). Finally, a non-scattering 3D phantom of the infant's torso was presented to project the futuristic aspect of our work that is to 3D print human organs of biomedical relevance.
Open Data philosophy is becoming more popular among scientists. Open Data approach aims to transform science by making high-quality and well-documented scientific data open to everybody in order to promote collaboration and transparency. In diffuse optical and near-infrared spectroscopy community, a large measurement dataset collected with state-of-the-art instrumentation applied on well-defined phantoms is still missing. Within that context, several European labs from BitMap network1 have collected diffuse optical data on standard phantoms involving the largest set of diffuse optics instruments published until now. In this work, we present a running project on the open dataset and associated reporting tools.
Performance assessment of instruments is a growing demand in the diffuse optics community and there is a definite need to get together to address this issue. Within the EU Network BITMAP1, we initiated a campaign for the performance evaluation of 10 diffuse optical instrumentation from 7 partner institutions adopting a set of 3 well accepted, standardized protocols. A preliminary analysis of the outcome along with future perspectives will be presented.
A multivariate method integrating time-domain and space-domain techniques of near-infrared spectroscopy is proposed for simultaneously retrieving the absolute quantities of optical scattering and absorption properties in tissues. The concept is theoretically demonstrated by Monte-Carlo simulations in the homogenous case, and then applied on twolayer liquid phantoms. The deviations from nominal values are typically less than 6% for absorption coefficients in both layers
KEYWORDS: Absorption, Scattering, Tissues, Diffuse optical spectroscopy, Data modeling, Tissue optics, In vivo imaging, Optical properties, Abdomen, Medicine
A periodic monitoring of the adipose tissue functions due to interventions, such as calorie restriction and bariatric surgery, or pathophysiological processes, has an increasing relevance in clinical diagnostics. Diffuse Optical Spectroscopy (DOS) is a valuable non-invasive tool that can be used in that direction. In this work, we present a pilot study based on Time Domain Broadband Diffuse Optical Spectroscopy (TD DOS) to characterize in vivo the subcutaneous fat tissue in the abdominal region. A first of its kind, portable TD DOS instrumentation, already enrolled in clinical studies, was used. Three healthy male volunteers were considered. Three source-detector separation distances (1, 2, and 3 cm) were used over the broad wavelength range of 600-1100 nm. The analysis was performed using a method based on a heterogeneous model to account for the multi-layered nature of the subcutaneous adipose tissue, and to obtain the optical properties specific to this fat localization. Inter-subject variation of tissue composition data was observed.
We investigated depth heterogeneity in the abdomen using time-domain diffuse optical spectroscopy at 3 source-detector distances, finding a higher water content in shallower regions, possibly ascribed to fat heterogeneity and/or skin contributions.
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