Small angle scattering by relatively large atmospheric cloud/fog water droplets and ice crystals can cause significant contrast reduction and blurring of imagery. While this effect is quite well explained and verified in field experiments and sensor models, the extent to which aerosols, especially those of quite prevalent anthropogenic fine/ultra-fine/coarse mode play a role in image degradation remains to this date, a controversial topic. In this work, the contribution of aerosols to image blur is revisited but with special focus on field data collected with a relatively large variety of ambient aerosol characterization and optical instrumentation. Ambient particulate/aerosol morphology and optical properties and trends are correlated with collected imagery using instruments including nano-class condensation particle counters, and a nephelometer. Images were captured by a visible camera at different times of the day over a 450 m path. We quantified the blurring in these images through evaluation of the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). The MTF of the imaging system was characterized through a short-range experiment in the laboratory and turbulence MTF was computed independently from the turbulence-induced motion of features in the images. The aerosol MTF was extracted by dividing the overall MTF by the turbulence and imager MTFs.
The interactions between Earth’s surface and atmosphere are crucial to understanding their impact on surface layer optical turbulence, specifically the temperature structure function (CT2) and refractive index structure function (Cn2). The Energy Balance Bowen Ratio (EBBR) – the ratio of sensible heat flux to latent heat flux – has shown promising capabilities to calculate sensible heat flux, a key component for computing CT2 and Cn2. Sensible heat as calculated via the Bowen Ratio inherently accounts for moisture content and evaporation as it apportions the balance of sensible heat to latent heat in the ratio. Thus it better permits the calculation of CT2 and Cn2 via a single equation only dependent on temperature and sensible heat in any stability condition as compared to “ground truth” sonic anemometer turbulence values during daylight and nighttime hours at various land sites. The Bulk Aerodynamic method relies on standard meteorological observations but requires stability corrections based on underlying assumptions with this approach. Researchers have shown success of Bulk Aerodynamic methods and similarity theory to predict Cn2 in the maritime surface layer, but many adjustments for weakness in stable conditions (air warmer than the water) are necessary. In this study, field data from a marine wave boundary layer test site allow for assessments of both the EBBR and Aerodynamic methods to quantify maritime surface layer turbulence, and the results compared to sonic anemometer and DELTA Cn2 values.
In an earlier work, we demonstrated a method to profile turbulence using time-lapse imagery of a distant target from five spatially separated cameras. Extended features on the target were tracked and by measuring the variances of the difference in wavefront tilts sensed between cameras due to all pairs of target features, turbulence information along the imaging path could be extracted. The method is relatively low cost and does not require sophisticated instrumentation. Turbulence can be sensed remotely from a single site without deployment of sources or sensors at the target location. Additionally, the method is phase-based, and hence has an advantage over irradiance-based techniques which suffer from saturation issues. The same concept has been applied to understand how turbulence changes with altitude in the surface layer. Short exposure images of a 30 m tall water tower were analyzed to obtain turbulence profiles along the imaging path. The experiment was performed over two clear days from mid-morning to early afternoon. The turbulence profiles show a drop in turbulence with altitude as expected. However, the rate at which turbulence decreased with altitude was different close to the ground from at higher altitudes.
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