Patients with myopic vitreopathy (MV) and posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) see floaters, which often can degrade contrast sensitivity to a significant extent. The floaters are associated with irregularly shaped vitreous opacities. In contrast, asteroid hyalosis (AH), which is characterized by microscopic, spherical, white asteroid bodies (ABs) that move with vitreous displacement during eye movements, does not interfere significantly with vision. We hypothesize that the irregular surface of vitreous opacities associated with MV distinguish MV from AH and its smooth-surfaced ABs. A finite-element model was developed to characterize the light-scattering field of vitreous opacities in MV and AH. Vitreous opacities were modeled as spherical bodies and illuminated by a plane wave of light in the optical wavelength of 400-1000 nm. The model has provisions to add random perturbations to the spherical surfaces to vary light-scattering properties and mimic disturbances in vision from simple diffraction rings to more-complex patterns. Samples of ex vivo porcine vitreous (0.4-0.5 ml) were placed in a custom spectrophotometer and the static, light-scattering field of the sample was measured in the spectral range of 400-1000 nm with a resolution of 0.3 nm. Model solutions mimicking healthy vitreous and AH were experimentally validated using a laboratory optical apparatus. Model-based estimates of scattering cross-sections of calibrated gold nanoparticles were found to be in good agreement with experimental measurements. Simulation results potentially can complement experimental data to quantitatively characterize vitreous opacities and distinguish between structures that significantly impact vision, such as those due to myopic vitreopathy and aging, from those that have little impact, like ABs. Such techniques to determine the structural significance of vitreous opacification would be very useful in selecting patients for surgery as well as evaluating the efficacy of experimental therapies for floaters.
KEYWORDS: Brain, Transducers, Head, Ultrasonography, Visualization, Image segmentation, Data acquisition, Neuroimaging, Magnetic resonance imaging, In vivo imaging
The cell differentiation and proliferation of the central nervous system (CNS) are closely related to vascular
development. An imaging protocol that integrated optoacoustics (OA) with high-frequency ultrasound (HFU)
was developed for in vivo imaging of brain ventricles and vasculature in mouse embryos. A 40-MHz, co-polymer,
5-element annular-array transducer with a geometric focus of 12 mm was modified to accommodate free-beam,
coaxial illumination. Three-dimensional (3-D) data sets were acquired by raster scanning the transducer-optics
assembly in 50-μm increments. A single intact conceptus from an anesthetized mouse was surgically exposed
into PBS-filled Petri-dish. An 800-μm spot illumination from a pulsed, 532-nm, Nd-YAG laser was synchronized
with a high-voltage impulse excitation of the central array element to facilitate simultaneous and spatially coregistered
OA and HFU data acquisition. The resulting OA and HFU signals from each scan location were
recorded on all five array channels and post-processed using a synthetic-focusing algorithm to enhance the depth
of field (DOF). Dual-modality images were acquired from mouse embryos at E11.5, E12.5, and E13.5 days of
gestation. The extended DOF allowed morphologically accurate visualization of the embryonic head. The brain
ventricles were segmented from the HFU data and rendered in 3-D. The OA data provided visualization of the
vascular plexus as well as individual blood vessels. Feasibility of spatially co-registered, low-cost dual-modality
in vivo imaging of mouse embryos was demonstrated.
High-frequency-ultrasound transducers are widely used but are typically based either on planar piezoceramic sections
that are lapped down to smaller thicknesses or on piezopolymers that may be deformed into more complex geometries.
Piezoceramics then require dicing to obtain arrays or can be fractured into spherical geometries to achieve focusing.
Piezopolymers are not as efficient for very small element sizes and are normally available only in discrete thicknesses.
Thick-film (TF) transducers provide a means of overcoming these limits because the piezoelectric film is deposited with
the required thickness, size and geometry, thus avoiding any subsequent machining. Thick-film transducers offer the
potential of a wide range of geometries such as single-elements and annular or linear arrays. Here, a single-element
focused transducer was developed using a piezoceramic composition adapted to high-power operation which is
commonly used at standard MHz frequencies. After fabrication, the transducer was characterized. Using specific
transmit-receive electronics and a water tank adapted to high-frequency devices, the transducer was excited using a short
pulse to evaluate its bandwidth and imaging capabilities. Finally, it was excited by a one-period sine wave using several
power levels to evaluate its capacity to produce high-intensity focused ultrasound at frequencies over 20 MHz.
We report preliminary results from our investigation of in vivo prostate elastography. Fewer than 50% of all prostate cancers are typically visible in current clinical imaging modalities. Elastography displays a map of strain that results when tissue is externally compressed. Thus, elastography is ideal for imaging prostate cancers because they are generally stiffer than the surrounding tissue and stiffer regions usually exhibit lower strain in elastograms. In our study, digital radio-frequency (RF) ultrasound echo data were acquired from prostate-cancer patients undergoing brachytherapy. Seed placement is guided by a transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) probe, which is held in a mechanical fixture. The probe can be moved in XYZ directions and tilted. The probe face, in contact with the rectal wall, is used to apply a compression force to the immediately adjacent prostate. We also used a water-filled (acoustic) coupling balloon to compress the prostate by increasing the water volume inside the balloon. In each scan plane (transverse), we acquired RF data from successive scans at the scanner frame rate as the deformation force on the rectal wall was continuously increased. We computed strain using 1D RF cross-correlation analysis. The compression method based on fixture displacement produced low-noise elastograms that beautifully displayed the prostate architecture and emphasized stiff areas. Balloon-based compression also produced low-noise elastograms. Initial results demonstrate that elastography may be useful in the detection and evaluation of prostate cancers, occult in conventional imaging modalities.
Purpose: Harmonic imaging has become a well-established technique for ultrasonic imaging at fundamental frequencies of 10 MHz or less. Ophthalmology has benefited from the use of fundamentals of 20 MHz to 50 MHz. Our aim was to explore the ability to generate harmonics for this frequency range, and to generate harmonic images of the eye.
Methods: The presence of harmonics was determined in both water and bovine vitreous propagation media by pulse/echo and hydrophone at a series of increasing excitation pulse intensities and frequencies. Hydrophone measurements were made at the focal point and in the near- and far-fields of 20 MHz and 40 MHz transducers. Harmonic images of the anterior segment of the rabbit eye were obtained by a combination of analog filtering and digital post-processing.
Results: Harmonics were generated nearly identically in both water and vitreous. Hydrophone measurements showed the maximum second harmonic to be -5 dB relative to the 35 MHz fundamental at the focus, while in pulse/echo the maximum harmonic amplitude was -15dB relative to the fundamental. Harmonics were absent in the near-field, but present in the far-field. Harmonic images of the eye showed improved resolution.
Conclusion: Harmonics can be readily generated at very high frequencies, and at power levels compliant with FDA guidelines for ophthalmology. This technique may yield further improvements to the already impressive resolutions obtainable in this frequency range. Improved imaging of the macular region, in particular, may provide significant improvements in diagnosis of retinal disease.
Our research is intended to develop ultrasonic methods for characterizing cancerous prostate tissue and thereby to improve the effectiveness of biopsy guidance, therapy targeting, and treatment monitoring. We acquired radio-frequency (RF) echo-signal data and clinical variables, e.g., PSA, during biopsy examinations. We computed spectra of the RF signals in each biopsied region, and trained neural network classifers with over 3,000 sets of data using biopsy data as the gold standard. For imaging, a lookup table returned scores for cancer likelihood on a pixel-by-pixel basis from spectral-parameter and PSA values. Using ROC analyses, we compared classification performance of artificial neural networks (ANNs) to conventional classification with a leave-one-patient-out approach intended to minimize the chance of bias. Tissue-type images (TTIs) were compared to prostatectomy histology to further assess classification performance. ROC-curve areas were greater for ANNs than for the B-mode-based classification by more than 20%, e.g., 0.75 +/- 0.03 for neural-networks vs. 0.64 +/- 0.03 for B-mode LOSs. ANN sensitivity was 17% better than the sensitivity range of ultrasound-guided biopsies. TTIs showed tumors that were entirely unrecognized in conventional images and undetected during surgery. We are investigating TTIs for guiding prostrate biopsies, and for planning radiation dose-escalation and tissue-sparing options, and monitoring prostrate cancer.
KEYWORDS: Transducers, Tissues, Spatial frequencies, Spectrum analysis, Ultrasonics, Ultrasonography, Acoustics, Data acquisition, Integration, Medical research
We have conducted a general study that relates calibrated 2-D ultrasonic spectral parameters to the physical properties of sub-resolution tissue scatterers. Our 2-D spectra are computed form digital radio-frequency echo data obtained as the transducer linearly scans along the cross-range (scan direction) with increments smaller than the half beam width. Acquired data are Fourier transformed with respect to range (beam) and cross-range (scan) directions. To quantitatively measure and classify the physical properties of tissues, we have defined two spectral functions and four spectral parameters. The 2-D spectral functions are: radially integrated spectral power (RISP) and angularly integrated spectral power (AISP). The summary parameters are: peak value and 3-dB width of the RISP, slope and intercept of the AISP. These parameter are understood in terms of the beam properties, transducer parameters and the physical properties of the tissue microstructures including size, shape, orientation, concentration and acoustic impedance. Our theoretical model indicates that 1) the 3-dB width of the RISP is predominantly determined by the scatterer size along the beam direction; 2) the slope of the linear fit of the AISP is predominantly determined by the scatterer size along range direction; 3) the concentration and the relative acoustic impedance fluctuation of the scatterers change the overall spectrum magnitude. The predictions of the theoretical model have been verified using beef muscle fibers examined with 40 MHz center frequency.
Brachytherapy using small implanted radioactive seeds is becoming an increasingly popular method for treating prostate cancer. Seeds are inserted into the prostate transperineally using ultrasound guidance. Dosimetry software determines the optimal placement of seeds for achieving the prescribed dose based on ultrasonic determination of the gland boundaries. However, because of prostate movement after planning images are acquired and during the implantation procedure, seeds commonly are not placed in the desired locations and the delivered dose may differ from the prescribed dose. Current methods of ultrasonic imaging do not adequately display implanted seeds for the purpose of correcting the delivered dose. We are investigating new methods of ultrasonic imaging that overcome limitations of conventional ultrasound. These methods include resonance, modified elastographic, and signature techniques. Each method shows promise for enhancing the visibility of seeds in ultrasound images. Combining the information provided by each method may reduce ambiguities in determining where seeds are present or absent. If successful, these novel imaging methods will enable correction of seed-misplacement errors during the implantation procedure, and hence will improve the therapeutic radiation dose delivered to target tissues.
Ernest Feleppa, J. Ketterling, Andrew Kalisz, Stella Urban, C. Porter, John Gillespie, Peter Schiff, Ronald Ennis, Cheng-Shie Wuu, Judd Moul, Isabell Sesterhenn, P. Scardino
Conventional B-mode ultrasound is the standard means of imaging the prostate for guiding prostate biopsies and planning radiotherapy (i.e., brachytherapy and external-beam radiation) of prostate cancer (CaP). Yet B-mode images essentially do not allow visualization of cancerous lesions of the prostate. Ultrasonic tissue-typing imaging based on spectrum analysis of radio-frequency (RF) echo signals has shown promise for overcoming the limitations of B-mode imaging in distinguishing cancerous from common forms of non-cancerous prostate tissue. Such tissue typing utilizes non-linear methods, such as nearest-neighbor and neural- network techniques, to classify tissues based on spectral- parameter and clinical-variable values. Our research seeks to develop imaging techniques based on these methods for the purpose of improving the guidance of prostate biopsies and the targeting of brachytherapy and external-beam radiotherapy of prostate cancer. Images based on these methods have been imported into real-time instrumentation for biopsy guidance and into commercial dose-planning software for real-time brachytherapy. 3D renderings show locations and volumes of cancer foci. These methods offer exciting possibilities for effective low-cost depiction of prostate cancer in real time and off-line images. Real-time imaging showing cancerous regions of the prostate can be of value in directing biopsies, determining whether biopsy is warranted, assisting in clinical staging, targeting brachytherapy, planning conformal external-beam radiation procedures, and monitoring treatment.
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