Based on the recent success of our strained-layer superlattice (SLS)-based infrared (IR) camera that performed Earth imaging from the International Space Station (ISS) in 2019 we have built, what we consider, to be the next generation multi-band SLS imaging system. The Compact Thermal Imager (CTI) was installed on the Robotic Refueling Mission 3 (RRM3) and attached to the exterior of the ISS. From this location we were able to capture 15 million images of a multitude of fires around the globe in 2019. This unexpected trove of data initiated quite a bit of scientific interest to further utilize this imaging capability but would include features to more precisely monitor terrestrial fires and other surface phenomena. To this end, we developed a technique to install specific bandpass filters directly onto the SLS detector hybrid assembly. Utilizing this technique we have built a CTI-2 camera system with two filters, 4 and 11μm, and have made a second detector assembly with six filter bands from 4- 12μm. This second system will also be used to supplement Landsat remote imaging monitoring approximate land surface temperatures, monitor evapotranspiration, sea ice and glacier dynamics. The CTI-2 camera is based on a 1,024x1,024 (1kx1k) format SLS detector hybridized to a FLIR ISC0404 readout integrated circuit (ROIC). The six band SLS focal plane array is based on the 640x512 FLIR ISC 9803 ROIC. This camera system is based on the Landsat 8 and 9 Thermal IR Sensors (TIRS) instrument and one of its purposes is to perform ground truthing for the Landsat 8/9 data at higher spectral resolution. Both Landsat TIRS instruments are dual band thermal IR sensors centered on 11 and 12μm (each with about a 1μm bandpass). Both of our SLS systems utilize a Ricor K548 cryocooler. To streamline costs and development time we used commercial optics and both commercial and custom NASA electronic components. A primary feature of these camera systems is the incorporation of specific filters to collect fire data at ~3.9μm and thermal data at ~11μm. The CTI- 2 instrument is designed for 37 m /pixel spatial resolution from 410km orbit (ISS orbit). In this paper, we will present the design and performance of the focal plane, optics, electronics and mechanical structure of the dual-band CTI-2 and the focal plane performance of the six-band focal plane.
Validation results from a reflectance-based field campaign at the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia (September 2018) are presented for GOES-17 and GOES-16 Advanced Baseline Imagers (ABI) reflective channels. The in situ measurements were used to characterize the surface reflectance and the atmosphere in order to constrain a radiative transfer model and predict the reflectance at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), which was then compared to the ABI measurements. The field campaign provides TOA reflectance estimates over several days, allowing assessment of the calibration accuracy and stability of channels 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 for GOES-17 and GOES-16 ABI. Channel 1 of GOES-17 ABI shows -5.5% bias in comparison to the ground-based predicted TOA. Over 6% bias in GOES-17 B2 was confirmed. A comparison to NOAA-20 VIIRS was also carried on during a near nadir overpass.
KEYWORDS: Landsat, Earth observing sensors, Space operations, Stray light, Sensors, Signal to noise ratio, Observatories, Short wave infrared radiation, Calibration
Landsat 9 is currently undergoing testing at the integrated observatory level in preparation for launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base in 2021. Landsat 9 will replace Landsat 7 in orbit, 8 days out of phase with Landsat 8. Landsat 9 is largely a copy of Landsat 8 in terms of instrumentation, with an Operational Land Imager (OLI), model #2 and a Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS), model #2. The TIRS-2 is more significantly changed from TIRS with increased redundancy, as well as changes to the telescope baffling to improve stray light control and a revised scene select mirror encoder mechanism. Data quality of the Landsat 9 instruments is comparable to, or better than the Landsat 8 ones, with an increase to 14 bits of data transmitted and more detailed pre-launch characterization for OLI-2, and with more detailed characterization of the TIRS-2 pre-launch, in addition to the improved stray light control. The performance of the two instruments is summarized and compared to that of the Landsat 8 instruments.
The Thermal Infrared Sensor-2 (TIRS-2) aboard Landsat 9 will continue Landsat’s four decade-long legacy of providing moderate resolution thermal imagery from low earth orbit (at 705 km) for environmental applications. Like the Thermal Infrared Sensor aboard Landsat 8, it is a pushbroom sensor with a cross-track field of view of 15° and provides two spectral channels at 10.8 and 12 μm. To ensure radiometric, spatial, and spectral performance, a comprehensive pre-launch testing program is being conducted at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center at the component, subsystem, and instrument level. This paper will focus on the results from the subsystem level testing where the instrument is almost completely assembled. This phase of testing is specifically designed to assess imaging performance including focus and stray light rejection, but is also used to provide a preliminary assessments of spatial and spectral performance. The calibration ground support equipment provides a flexible blackbody illumination source and optics to conduct these tests. The spectral response test setup has its own illumination source outside the chamber that propagates through the calibration ground support equipment in an optical configuration designed for this purpose. This test configuration with the calibration ground support equipment and TIRS-2 subsystem in the thermal vacuum chamber enables a large range of illumination angles for stray light measurements. The results show that TIRS-2 performance is expected to meet all of its performance requirements with few waivers and deviations.
The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission addresses the need to observe highaccuracy, long-term climate change trends and to use decadal change observations as the most critical method to determine the accuracy of climate change. One of the major objectives of CLARREO is to advance the accuracy of SI traceable absolute calibration at infrared and reflected solar wavelengths. This advance is required to reach the on-orbit absolute accuracy required to allow climate change observations to survive data gaps while remaining sufficiently accurate to observe climate change to within the uncertainty of the limit of natural variability. While these capabilities exist at NIST in the laboratory, there is a need to demonstrate that it can move successfully from NIST to NASA and/or instrument vendor capabilities for future spaceborne instruments. The current work describes the test plan for the Solar, Lunar for Absolute Reflectance Imaging Spectroradiometer (SOLARIS) which is the calibration demonstration system (CDS) for the reflected solar portion of CLARREO. The goal of the CDS is to allow the testing and evaluation of calibration approaches, alternate design and/or implementation approaches and components for the CLARREO mission. SOLARIS also provides a test-bed for detector technologies, non-linearity determination and uncertainties, and application of future technology developments and suggested spacecraft instrument design modifications. The end result of efforts with the SOLARIS CDS will be an SI-traceable error budget for reflectance retrieval using solar irradiance as a reference and methods for laboratory-based, absolute calibration suitable for climate-quality data collections.
The Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) mission key goals include enabling
observation of high accuracy long-term climate change trends, use of these observations to test and improve climate
forecasts, and calibration of operational and research sensors. The spaceborne instrument suites include a reflected solar
(RS) spectroradiometer, emitted infrared spectroradiometer, and radio occultation receivers. The requirement for the RS
instrument is that derived reflectance must be traceable to SI standards with an absolute uncertainty of <0.3% and the
error budget that achieves this requirement is described in previous work. This work describes the Solar/Lunar Absolute
Reflectance Imaging Spectroradiometer (SOLARIS), a calibration demonstration system for RS instrument, and presents
initial calibration and characterization methods and results. SOLARIS is an Offner spectrometer with two separate focal
planes each with its own entrance aperture and grating covering spectral ranges of 320-640, 600-2300 nm over a full
field-of-view of 10 degrees with 0.27 milliradian sampling. Results from laboratory measurements including use of
integrating spheres, transfer radiometers and spectral standards combined with field-based solar and lunar acquisitions
are presented.
The CLARREO mission addresses the need to provide accurate, broadly acknowledged climate records that can be used
to validate long-term climate projections that become the foundation for informed decisions on mitigation and adaptation
policies. The CLARREO mission accomplishes this critical objective through rigorous SI traceable decadal change
observations that will reduce the key uncertainties in current climate model projections. These same uncertainties also
lead to uncertainty in attribution of climate change to anthropogenic forcing. CLARREO will make highly accurate and
SI-traceable global, decadal change observations sensitive to the most critical, but least understood climate forcing,
responses, and feedbacks. The CLARREO breakthrough is to achieve the required levels of accuracy and traceability to
SI standards for a set of observations sensitive to a wide range of key decadal change variables. The required accuracy
levels are determined so that climate trend signals can be detected against a background of naturally occurring
variability. The accuracy for decadal change traceability to SI standards includes uncertainties associated with
instrument calibration, satellite orbit sampling, and analysis methods. Unlike most space missions, the CLARREO
requirements are driven not by the instantaneous accuracy of the measurements, but by accuracy in the large time/space
scale averages that are necessary to understand global, decadal climate changes.
The Constellation-X mission is a follow-on to the current Chandra and XMM missions. It will place in orbit an array of four X-ray telescopes that will work in unison, having a substantial increase in effective area, energy resolution, and energy bandpass over current missions. To accomplish these ambitious increases new optics technologies must be exploited. The primary instrument for the mission is the Spectroscopy X-Ray Telescope (SXT), which covers the 0.21 to 10 keV band with a combination of two x-ray detectors: a reflection grating spectrometer with CCD readout and a micro-calorimeter. Mission requirements are an effective area of 15,000 cm2 near 1 keV and a 15 arc-sec (HPD) image resolution with a goal of 5 arc-sec. The Constellation-X SXT uses a segmented design with lightweight replicated optics. A technology development program is being pursued with the intent of demonstrating technical readiness prior to the program new start. Key elements of the program include the replication of the optical elements, assembly and alignment of the optics into a complete mirror assembly and demonstration of production techniques needed for fabrication of multiple units. These elements will be demonstrated in a series of engineering development and prototype optical assemblies which are increasingly flight-like. In this paper we present an image angular resolution error budgets for the SXT and for the Optical Assembly Pathfinder #2 (OAP2), the first of engineering development units intended to be tested in x-rays. We describe OAP2 image error sources and performance analyses made to assess error sensitivities. Finally we present an overall prediction of as-tested imaging performance in the x-ray test facility.
The Constellation-X SXT mirrors and housings continue to evolve toward a flight-like design. Our second-generation alignment housing, the Optical Alignment Pathfinder 2 (OAP2), is a monolithic titanium structure that is nested inside the OAP1 alignment jig, described in a previous paper (J. Hair, et. al., SPIE 2002). In order to perform x-ray tests in a configuration where the optical axis is horizontal, and continue to develop more flight-like structures, we needed to design a strong, but lightweight housing that would impart minimal deformations on the thin segmented mirrors when it is rotated from the vertical orientation used for optical alignment to the horizontal orientation that is used for x-ray testing. This paper will focus on the design of the OAP2 housing, and the assembly and alignment of the optics within the OAP1 plus OAP2 combination using the Centroid Detector Assembly (CDA). The CDA is an optical alignment tool that was successfully used for the HRMA alignment on the Chandra X-ray Observatory. In addition, since the glass we are using is so thin and flexible, we will present the response of the optical alignment quality of a Wolter-I segment to known deformations introduced in by the OAP1 alignment housing.
As NASA’s next facility-class x-ray mission, Constellation X will provide high-throughput, high-resolution spectroscopy for addressing fundamental astrophysical and cosmological questions. Key to the Constellation-X mission is the development of lightweight grazing-incidence optics for its Spectroscopy X-ray Telescopes (SXT) and for its Hard X-ray Telescopes (HXT). In preparation for x-ray testing Constellation-X SXT and HXT development and demonstration optics, Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is upgrading its 100-m x-ray test facility, including development of a five degree-of-freedom (5-DoF) mount for translating and tilting test articles within the facility’s large vacuum chamber. To support development of alignment and assembly procedures for lightweight x-ray optics, Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) has prepared the Optical Alignment Pathfinder Two (OAP2), which will serve as a surrogate optic for developing and rehearsing x-ray test procedures. In order to minimize thermal distortion of the mirrors during x-ray testing, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) has designed and implemented a thermal control and monitoring system for the OAP2. CfA has also built an aperture wheel for masking and sub-aperture sampling of the OAP2 to aid in characterizing x-ray performance of test optics.
The Constellation-X mission is a follow-on to the current Chandra and XMM missions. It will place in orbit an array of four identical X-ray telescopes that will work in unison, having a substantial increase in effective area, energy resolution, and energy bandpass over current missions. To accomplish these ambitious increases new optics technologies must be exploited. The primary instrument for the mission is the Spectroscopy X-Ray Telescope (SXT), which covers the 0.2 to 10 keV band with a combination of two x-ray detectors: a reflection grating spectrometer (RGS) with CCD readout, and
a micro-calorimeter. Mission requirements are an effective area of 15,000 cm2 near 1.25 keV, 6,000 cm2 near 6 keV, and a 15 arcsec (HPD) resolution requirement with a goal of 5 arcsec. The Constellation-X SXT uses a segmented design with lightweight replicated optics. A technology development program is being pursued with the intent of demonstrating technical readiness prior to the program new start. Key elements of the program include the replication of the optical elements, assembly and alignment of the optics into a complete mirror assembly and demonstration of production techniques needed for fabrication of multiple units. In this paper we present the development of SXT assembly and alignment techniques and describe recent work and current status on the first of these assemblies, the Optical Assembly Pathfinder, in which precision mechanical techniques and optical metrology are used to assemble and align the flexible optical elements.
We provide an overview of the Constellation-X SXT development program. We describe the performance requirements and goals, and the status of the technology development program. The SXT has a 1.6-meter diameter, a 10-meter focal length, and is to have an angular resolution exceeding 15 arc seconds. It has a modular design, incorporting lightweight, multiply nested, segmented Wolter Type I x-ray mirrors. All aspects of the design lend themselves to mass-production. The reflecting surfaces are produced by epoxy replication off precision mandrels onto glass substrates that have been accurately formed by thermal slumping. Coalignment of groups of relfectors to the required sub-micron accuracy is assisted by precison silicon micorstructures. Optical alignment is performed using the Centroid Detector Assembly originally developed for aligning the Chandra mirror. Recent efforts have concentrated on the producotin of an Engineering Unit, incorporating the components for the first time into a flight-like configuration. We summarize the status of the development of the processes for the key components and the initial metrology results of the Engineering Unit.
The Constellation-X mission will perform X-Ray science with improvements in energy resolution and effective area over its predecessor missions. The primary instrument on each of the four Constellation-X spacecraft is the Spectroscopy X-Ray Telescope (SXT). The SXT is a 1.6m diameter grazing incidence mirror assembly comprised of approximately 4000 optic elements. In order for the optic elements to work together to achieve the required 15 arcsec image resolution for the telescope, each optic must be aligned very precisely. To enable the alignment of the optic elements to the required tolerances, new technology must be developed through a series of technology demonstrators. The first step in this process is the production of the Optical Assembly Pathfinder (OAP). The OAP represents a small section, or module, of the complete SXT and has been designed to facilitate the evaluation and development of the optic element support, alignment, and adjustment concepts, processes, and procedures. To do this, one pair of optic elements, primary and secondary, will be aligned using optical alignment methods including the Centroid Detector Assembly (CDA) and Interferometry. Ten Optic Adjustment Arms will support the optic elements such that their position and figures can be adjusted. Currently, one section, the primary section, of the OAP has been assembled and is awaiting the installation of an optic element for testing.
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