SWIR imagers are seeing wide use in commercial and defense applications. The conventional choice for the detector is InGaAs lattice-matched to InP. Recently, colloidal quantum dots using PbS have shown promise as a SWIR responsive material. CQDs have the promise or reducing SWIR sensors cost substantially, but the performance difference requires more characterization. We demonstrate both InGaAs and CQDs in focal plane arrays using the same ROIC, the AE1702, which is a 640x512 format ROIC with a 5 μm pixel pitch. We, show spectra, PTC measurements, and imaging. In addition, we show measurements using 1900 nm CQDs-based FPAs.
Attollo Engineering specializes in developing small pixel pitch infrared imaging sensors. Small pixel pitch sensors offer opportunities for imaging system SWaP reduction that open up a variety of SWaP-constrained applications that were not previously feasible. The size and weight of the optics also decrease because of the small pixel, enabling further SWaP savings. Attollo Engineering will present characteristics of their SWIR camera line, which includes QVGA, VGA, and HD formats, all using a 5 µm pixel pitch sensor based on InGaAs detectors. They will also show imagery taken with their SWIR cameras.
Unmanned airborne and dismounted soldier capability requirements continue to push for reduced size, weight, and power (SWaP) and high sensitivity infrared (IR) imaging in applications that were not previously practical. In response to these needs, Attollo Engineering has developed a 1280x1024, 5μm pixel pitch cooled mid wavelength infrared (MWIR) sensor that pushes the envelope in pixel pitch in addition to a 1280x1024, 10μm pixel sensor dual band sensor with additional sensitivity in the short wavelength infrared (SWIR) in order to exploit SWIR phenomenology including laser see spot functionality. Both of these sensors offer MWIR sensing capabilities but are also able to leverage aspects of Attollo’s detector design to enable SWIR sensing to varying degrees. This class of small pixel cooled, single and dual band IR sensor technology represents advancements in all aspects of the sensor’s design and development, and we will discuss the innovations made at Attollo to enable this capability including epitaxial detector design based on III V compound semiconductors, detector array and focal plane array fabrication, design of a low noise, dual band CTIA/DI readout integrated circuit (ROIC), vacuum dewar packaging, and electronics and firmware design. In this paper we will present on the status of high definition small pixel pitch MWIR and dual band SWIR/MWIR imaging technology at Attollo as it relates to these sensors including design and measurement data and imaging.
Attollo Engineering specializes in developing small pixel pitch infrared imaging sensors. Small pixel pitch sensors offer opportunities for imaging system SWaP reduction that open up a variety of SWaP-constrained applications that were not previously feasible. The size and weight of the optics also decrease because of the small pixel, enabling further SWaP savings. Attollo Engineering has developed high-definition high-operating-temperature SWIR and MWIR sensors with pixel pitches as small as 5 µm using III-V compound semiconductor detector materials. Additionally, we have developed a compact camera core with an integrated cooler and full featured camera electronics for these imagers.
Small pixel pitch sensors offer opportunities for imaging system SWaP reduction that open up a variety of SWaP-constrained applications that were not previously feasible. Furthermore, small pixel digital sensors provide advantages in the form of additional SWaP reduction, noise immunity, and simplified interfacing requirements. With these motivations in mind, Attollo Engineering has developed a 640x512, 5μm pixel pitch, high operating temperature MWIR sensor based on III V compound semiconductor detector materials. We have adapted our 5μm pixel pitch SWIR processes for MWIR detector materials and have been able to achieve 99.5+% operability MWIR FPAs with BLIP performance operating at 130K. Additionally, we have developed a compact camera core with an integrated cooler and full featured camera electronics. The global shutter camera is capable of frame rates of up to 220 Hz or smaller windows in excess of 1 kHz and integration times as low as 100 nanoseconds. Attollo will discuss characteristics of this sensor and other related technologies.
Applications for short-wave infrared sensors continue to increase in commercial and military applications. Reducing pixel pitch decreases the size and cost expanding the ability to deploy sensors on smaller platforms including handheld and autonomous vehicles. Small pixel pitch cameras allow the user to shrink the lens thereby shrinking the total system size. Attollo Engineering will present the development of a VGA SWIR camera with 5 micron pixel pitch. Attollo will discuss designs of the components including detector, ROIC, and camera electronics. Attollo will show imagery and characteristics of the sensor.
Attollo has developed large area low capacitance InGaAs detectors to meet the needs of LiDAR systems following the roadmap of technology development at the near Infrared (NIR) wavelengths of 850/905/940 nm with the eventual transition to eye-safe wavelengths near 1550 nm. Attollo InGaAs offers large photodetector areas while still meeting the bandwidth limitations of the amplified detection system. Large area photodetectors enable a large system Field of View (FOV) with a simpler and larger diameter lens and also provide lower input-referred noise from optimized transimpedance amplifier systems. Attollo will present results on InGaAs detectors achieving capacitance densities 3x lower than state-of-the-art with 16 pF/mm2. Attollo will present LiDAR receiver modeling data utilizing these detectors and will quantify the advantages of low capacitance in LIDAR applications as it relates to system bandwidth and amplifier input referred noise performance of the system.
Attollo Engineering will present results of our research program developing extended SWIR sensors as well as the packaging and camera electronics surrounding it. The 640x512 sensor uses GaInAsSb for the active layer and has a cutoff wavelength of 2.5 m. The unipolar barrier structure enables a higher operating temperature by substantially reducing dark current caused by G-R mechanisms and surface leakage. The material is grown on GaSb and is made up of GaInAsSb absorber and contact layers separated by an AlGaSb barrier. We will present dark current and imaging results from the sensor fabrication at different temperatures. The detector array was hybridized to a 15 m pixel pitch ROIC that has a direct injection unit cell. The hybridized sensor was packaged into a custom 4-stage thermoelectrically cooled package. The package was particularly designed to minimize the heat load and maximize the thermal conduction. We will present the trades that went into designing the package and the internals of the package. The cooler stabilized the sensor temperature at 200K. The electronics used to drive the package have the ability to change biases and timing on the fly using software controls. Attollo designed these electronics to be a low-cost solution for demonstrating sensors in many different modes. We will show information regarding each stage of integration and show the results of the imaging using the eSWIR sensor and supporting equipment.
FLIR Electro Optical Components will present our latest developments in large InGaAs focal plane arrays, which are
used for low light level imaging in the short wavelength infrared (SWIR) regime. FLIR will present imaging from their
latest small pitch (15 μm) focal plane arrays in VGA and High Definition (HD) formats. FLIR will present
characterization of the FPA including dark current measurements as well as the use of correlated double sampling to
reduce read noise. FLIR will show imagery as well as FPA-level characterization data.
We describe the factors that go into the component choices for a short wavelength (SWIR) imager, which include the
SWIR sensor, the lens, and the illuminator. We have shown the factors for reducing dark current, and shown that we can
achieve well below 1.5 nA/cm2 for 15 μm devices at 7°C. We have mated our InGaAs detector arrays to 640x512
readout integrated integrated circuits (ROICs) to make focal plane arrays (FPAs). In addition, we have fabricated high
definition 1920x1080 FPAs for wide field of view imaging. The resulting FPAs are capable of imaging photon fluxes
with wavelengths between 1 and 1.6 microns at low light levels. The dark current associated with these FPAs is
extremely low, exhibiting a mean dark current density of 0.26 nA/cm2 at 0°C. FLIR has also developed a high definition,
1920x1080, 15 um pitch SWIR sensor. In addition, FLIR has developed laser arrays that provide flat illumination in
scenes that are normally light-starved. The illuminators have 40% wall-plug efficiency and provide low-speckle
illumination, provide artifact-free imagery versus conventional laser illuminators.
We discuss the current performance of long-wavelength infrared photodetectors based on type-II superlattices, and the projected characteristics for diffusion-limited operation. For optimized architectures such as graded-gap and abrupt-heterojunction designs, the dark currents are strongly dominated by Shockley-Read (SR) rather than Auger processes. A factor of 10 improvement over the demonstrated SR lifetimes would lead to a factor of 4 lower dark current than state-of-the-art HgCdTe devices.
Aerius Photonics will present their latest developments in large InGaAs focal plane arrays, which are used for low light
level imaging in the short wavelength infrared (SWIR) regime. Aerius will present imaging in both 1280x1024 and
640x512 formats. Aerius will present characterization of the FPA including dark current measurements. Aerius will
also show the results of development of SWIR FPAs for high temperaures, including imagery and dark current data.
Finally, Aerius will show results of using the SWIR camera with Aerius' SWIR illuminators using VCSEL technology.
Type-II strained layer superlattices (SLS) are a rapidly maturing technology for infrared imaging applications,
with performance approaching that of HgCdTe1,2,3,4. Teledyne Imaging Sensors (TIS), in partnership with the
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), has recently demonstrated state-of-the-art, LWIR, SLS 256 × 256 focal
plane arrays (FPAs) with cutoff wavelengths ranging from 9.4 to 11.5 μm. The dark current performance of
these arrays is within a factor of 10-20 of (state-of-the-art) HgCdTe. Dark current characteristics of
unpassivated and passivated devices exhibit bulk-limited behavior, essential for FPA applications. TIS has
also demonstrated rapid substrate thinning processes for increased infrared transmission through the GaSb
substrate. In addition to this work, this presentation will discuss the recent developments of 1K x 1K LWIR
SLS FPAs.
Free-space optical communications has recently been touted as a solution to the "last mile" bottleneck of
high-speed data networks providing highly secure, short to long range, and high-bandwidth connections. However,
commercial near infrared systems experience atmospheric scattering losses and scintillation effects which can adversely
affect a link's operating budget. By moving the operating wavelength into the mid- or long-wavelength infrared
enhanced link uptimes and increased operating range can be achieved due to less susceptibility to atmospheric affects.
The combination of room-temperature, continuous-wave, high-power quantum cascade lasers and high operating
temperature type-II superlattice photodetectors offers the benefits of mid- and long-wavelength infrared systems as well
as practical operating conditions for next generation free-space communications systems.
Free-space optical communications has recently been touted as a solution to the "last mile" bottleneck of high speed data networks providing highly secure, short to long range, and high bandwidth connections. However, commercial near infrared systems experience atmospheric scattering losses and scintillation effects which can adversely affect a link's uptime. By moving the operating wavelength into the mid or long wavelength infrared enhanced link uptimes and increased range can be achieved due to less susceptibility atmospheric affects. The combination of room temperature, continuous wave' high power quantum cascade lasers and high operating temperature type II superlattice photodetectors offers the benefits of mid and long wavelength infrared systems as well as practical operating conditions.
Infrared sensors utilizing Type II superlattice structures have gained increased attention in the past few years.
With the stronger covalent bonds of the III-V materials, greater material uniformity over larger areas is obtained as
compared to the weaker ionic bonding of the II-VI materials. Results obtained on GaSb/InAs Type II superlattices have
shown performance comparable to HgCdTe detectors, with the promise of higher performance due to reduced Auger
recombination and dark current through improvements in device design and material quality. In this paper, we discuss
advancements in Type II IR sensors that cover the 3 to >30 μm wavelength range. Specific topics covered will be device
design and modeling using the Empirical Tight Binding Method (ETBM), material growth and characterization, device
fabrication and testing, as well as focal plane array processing and imaging. We demonstrate high quality material with
PL linewidths of ~20 meV, x-ray FWHM of 20-40 arcsec, and AFM rms roughness of 1~.2 Å over a 20 μm×20μm area.
Negative luminescence at 10 μm range is demonstrated for the first time. Device external quantum efficiency of >30%,
responsivity of ~2A/W, and detectivity of 1011 Jones at 77K in the 10 μm range are routinely obtained. Imaging has been
demonstrated at room temperature for the first time with a 5 μm cutoff wavelength 256×256 focal plane array.
The authors report on recent advances in the development of mid-, long-, and very long-wavelength infrared (MWIR, LWIR, and VLWIR) type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice infrared photodiodes. The residual carrier background of binary type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice photodiodes of cut-off wavelengths around 5 μm has been studied in the temperature range between 10 and 200 K. A four-point, capacitance-voltage technique on mid-wavelength and long-wavelength type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice infrared photodiodes reveal residual background concentrations around 5 × 1014 cm-3. Additionally, recent progress towards LWIR photodiodes for focal plane array imaging applications is presented. Single element detectors with a cut-off wavelength, λc,50%, of 10.2 μm demonstrated detectivities of approximately 1 × 1011 cmHz1/2W-1 and quantum efficiencies of 32% at the peak responsivity wavelength of around 7.9 μm. Furthermore, high-performance VLWIR single element photodiodes are discussed. The silicon dioxide passivation of VLWIR photodiodes is also presented, which resulted in an approximately 5 times increase of the sidewall resistivity. The latest developments in this material system lend further support for its use as a high-performance alternative for infrared optical systems compared to the current state-of-the-art imaging systems, especially those approaching the long-wavelength and very-long-wavelength infrared.
We present our most recent results and review our progress over the past few years regarding InAs/GaSb Type II superlattices for photovoltaic detectors and focal plane arrays. Empirical tight binding methods have been proven to be very effective and accurate in designing superlattices for various cutoff wavelengths from 3.7 μm up to 32 μm. Excellent agreement between theoretical calculations and experimental results has been obtained. High quality material growths were performed using an Intevac modular Gen II molecular beam epitaxy system. The material quality was characterized using x-ray, atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscope and photoluminescence, etc. Detector performance confirmed high material electrical quality. Details of the demonstration of 256×256 long wavelength infrared focal plane arrays will be presented.
Dark current has become a significant limiting factor for the development of the Type II InAs/GaSb superlattices technology. Experimental results showed that at liquid nitrogen temperature the dominating dark current under reverse bias is the generation-recombination current before the tunneling current turns on. Recent research on the source of the dark current indicated that the Auger recombinations might play a very important role in the superlattice diode dark current. With proper design of the superlattice structure, we have been able to reduce the dark current several orders of magnitude in the LWIR range. The superlattice diode performance was also improved dramatically. Infrared focal plane arrays based on these superlattices will also be discussed.
Nanopillar devices have been fabricated from GaInAs/InP QWIP material grown by MOCVD. Using electron beam lithography and reactive ion etching techniques, large, regular arrays of nanopillars with controllable diameters ranging from 150 nm to less than 40 nm have been reproducibly formed. Photoluminescence experiments demonstrate a strong peak wavelength blue shift for nanopillar structures compared to the as-grown quantum well material. Top and bottom metal contacts have been realized using a polyimide planarization and etchback procedure. I-V and noise measurements have been performed. Optical measurements indicate photoconductive response in selected nanopillar arrays. Device peak wavelength response occurs at about 8 μm with peak device responsivity of 420 mA/W. Peak detectivity of 3×108 cmHz1/2/W has been achieved at -1V bias and 30 K.
Leakage currents limit the operation of high performance type II InAs/GaSb superlattice photodiode technology. Surface leakage current becomes a dominant limiting factor, especially at the scale of a focal plane array pixel (< 25 μm) and must be addressed. A reduction of the surface state density, unpinning the Fermi level at the surface, and appropriate termination of the semiconductor crystal are all aims of effective passivation. Recent work in the passivation of type II InAs\GaSb superlattice photodetectors with aqueous sulfur-based solutions has resulted in increased R0A products and reduced dark current densities by reducing the surface trap density. Additionally, photoluminescence of similarly passivated type II InAs/GaSb superlattice and InAs GaSb bulk material will be discussed.
The absorption or emission wavelength in optoelectronic devices such as quantum well infrared photodetectors, quantum cascade lasers, and type II superlattice photodiodes can be controlled by the thickness and composition of the quantum wells that constitute their active layers. By further confining the charge carriers, for instance in a quantum dot, even more control can be gained over energy transitions within the semiconductor crystal. We propose a method for manipulating the semiconductor band structure by confining carriers within nanopillar structures. Using electron beam lithography and dry plasma etching, we can precisely control the pillar placement, density and dimensions, and thus the performance characteristics, of the optoelectronic device. Furthermore, by patterning different size structures, it is possible to create arrays of multi-color devices on the same substrate, a technique that lends itself to large-scale monolithic integration. We demonstrate the fabrication of nanopillar arrays in the GaSb, GaInP, GaInAs, and type II InAs/GaSb superlattice material systems and show initial photoluminescence data, which seems to indicate quantum confinement within these structures.
The authors report the most recent progress in Type II InAs/GaSb superlattice materials and photovoltaic detectors developed for focal plane array applications with a cutoff wavelength of ~8 μm. No turn-on of tunneling current was observed even at a reverse bias of -3 V for a 3 μm thick p-i-n photodiodes. The thermally-limited zero bias detectivity under 300 K 2 π FOV was 2~3×1011 cm•Hz1/2/W at liquid nitrogen temperature, with a current responsivity of 2~3 A/W and a mean quantum efficiency of ~50%. Initial passivation using SiO2 has shown to decrease the dark current by ~30% at a reverse bias of -1 V. The same detector structure was used for focal plane arrays with silicon readout integrated circuit. Concept proof of imaging was demonstrated with a format of 256×256 at liquid nitrogen temperature.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.