Paul R. Stauffer,1 Paolo F. Maccarini,1 Kavitha Arunachalam,2 Valeria De Luca,1 Sara Salahi,1 Alina Boico,1 Oystein Klemetsen,3 Yngve Birkelund,3 Svein K. Jacobsen,3 Fernando Bardati,4 Piero Tognolotti,5 Brent Snow6
1Duke Univ. (United States) 2Indian Institute of Technology (India) 3Univ. of Tromso (Norway) 4Univ. of Roma Tor Vergata (Italy) 5Univ. dell'Aguila (Italy) 6The Univ. of Utah (United States)
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Background: Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is a serious health problem leading to renal scarring in children. Current
VUR detection involves traumatic x-ray imaging of kidneys following injection of contrast agent into bladder via
invasive Foley catheter. We present an alternative non-invasive approach for detecting VUR by radiometric monitoring
of kidney temperature while gently warming the bladder.
Methods: We report the design and testing of: i) 915MHz square slot antenna array for heating bladder, ii) EMI-shielded
log spiral microstrip receive antenna, iii) high-sensitivity 1.375GHz total power radiometer, iv) power
modulation approach to increase urine temperature relative to overlying perfused tissues, and v) invivo porcine
experiments characterizing bladder heating and radiometric temperature of aaline filled 30mL balloon "kidney"
implanted 3-4cm deep in thorax and varied 2-6°C from core temperature.
Results: SAR distributions are presented for two novel antennas designed to heat bladder and monitor deep kidney
temperatures radiometrically. We demonstrate the ability to heat 180mL saline in in vivo porcine bladder to 40-44°C
while maintaining overlying tissues <38°C using time-modulated square slot antennas coupled to the abdomen with
room temperature water pad. Pathologic evaluations confirmed lack of acute thermal damage in pelvic tissues for up to
three 20min bladder heat exposures. The radiometer clearly recorded 2-6°C changes of 30mL "kidney" targets at depth
in 34°C invivo pig thorax.
Conclusion: A 915MHz antenna array can gently warm in vivo pig bladder without toxicity while a 1.375GHz
radiometer with log spiral receive antenna detects ≥2°C rise in 30mL "urine" located 3-4cm deep in thorax,
demonstrating more than sufficient sensitivity to detect Grade 4-5 reflux of warmed urine for non-invasive detection of
VUR.
Paul R. Stauffer,Paolo F. Maccarini,Kavitha Arunachalam,Valeria De Luca,Sara Salahi,Alina Boico,Oystein Klemetsen,Yngve Birkelund,Svein K. Jacobsen,Fernando Bardati,Piero Tognolotti, andBrent Snow
"Microwave radiometry for non-invasive detection of vesicoureteral
reflux (VUR) following bladder warming", Proc. SPIE 7901, Energy-based Treatment of Tissue and Assessment VI, 79010V (22 February 2011); https://doi.org/10.1117/12.875636
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Paul R. Stauffer, Paolo F. Maccarini, Kavitha Arunachalam, Valeria De Luca, Sara Salahi, Alina Boico, Oystein Klemetsen, Yngve Birkelund, Svein K. Jacobsen, Fernando Bardati, Piero Tognolotti, Brent Snow, "Microwave radiometry for non-invasive detection of vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) following bladder warming," Proc. SPIE 7901, Energy-based Treatment of Tissue and Assessment VI, 79010V (22 February 2011); https://doi.org/10.1117/12.875636