This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9573 including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction, and Conference Committee listing.

The ionizing radiation environment in a nuclear reactor containment building or geological waste repository may result in saturation of the radiation-induced attenuation (RIA) in fiber optic cables. Room temperature irradiations to Mrad doses were carried out to quantify RIA recovery at both ambient and elevated temperatures. Additional experiments sought to establish a reduction in RIA beyond recovery obtained by thermal annealing alone by incrementally increasing injected light power from 1 μW to 12 μW over varying time intervals. Results indicate that total possible signal recovery under such conditions is ~70% and is dominated by thermal annealing of short-lived color centers with supplemental low-intensity (μW) photobleaching providing little to no additional benefit.

The extremely low thermal expansion glass ceramic ZERODUR® finds more and more applications as sophisticated light weight structures with thin ribs or as thin shells. Quite often they will be subject to higher mechanical loads such as rocket launches or modulating wobbling vibrations. Designing such structures requires calculation methods and data taking into account their long term fatigue. With brittle materials fatigue is not only given by the material itself but to a high extent also by its surface condition and the environmental media especially humidity. This work extends the latest data and information gathered on the bending strength of ZERODUR® with new results concerning its long term behavior under tensile stress. The parameter needed for prediction calculations which combines the influences of time and environmental media is the stress corrosion constant n. Results of the past differ significantly from each other. In order to obtain consistent data the stress corrosion constant has been measured with the method comparing the breakage statistical distributions at different stress increase rates. For better significance the stress increase rate was varied over four orders of magnitude from 0.004 MPa/s to 40 MPa/s. Experiments were performed under normal humidity for long term earth bound applications and under nitrogen atmosphere as equivalent to dry environment occurring for example with telescopes in deserts and also equivalent to vacuum for space applications. As shown earlier the bending strength of diamond ground surfaces of ZERODUR® can be represented with a three parameter Weibull distribution. Predictions on the long term strength change of ZERODUR® structures under tensile stress are possible with reduced uncertainty if Weibull threshold strength values are considered and more reliable stress corrosion constant data are applied.

The optical rectification crystals would be damaged under the high-power femtosecond laser radiation during the generation of terahertz radiation in optical rectification, limiting the further increase of the intensity and energy conversion efficiency of terahertz radiation. In this paper, the interaction mechanism between the femtosecond laser pulse and optical rectification crystals has been analyzed and the prediction model of damage threshold of LiNbO3 crystal under femtosecond laser has also been built up. On the basis, the evolution of free electron in crystal material has been discussed in detail, and the influence of the major parameters of the femtosecond laser on the damage threshold has been analyzed quantitatively. The results show that, the density of generated free electron increases with the increasing of the intensity and the pulse duration of femtosecond laser. For the given intensity of femtosecond laser, the damage threshold of the LiNbO₃ crystal increases with the increasing of the pulse duration. The results for the damage threshold are consistent quite well with the experimental data reported in the literature.

Advances in 3D printing technology allow for the manufacture of topologically complex parts not otherwise feasible through conventional manufacturing methods. Maturing metal and ceramic 3D printing technologies are becoming more adept at printing complex shapes, enabling topologically intricate mirror substrates. One application area that can benefit from additive manufacturing is reflective optics used in high energy laser (HEL) systems that require materials with a low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), high specific stiffness, and (most importantly) high thermal conductivity to effectively dissipate heat from the optical surface. Currently, the limits of conventional manufacturing dictate the topology of HEL optics to be monolithic structures that rely on passive cooling mechanisms and high reflectivity coatings to withstand laser damage. 3D printing enables the manufacture of embedded cooling channels in metallic mirror substrates to allow for (1) active cooling and (2) tunable structures. This paper describes the engineering and analysis of an actively cooled composite optical structure to demonstrate the potential of 3D printing on the improvement of optomechanical systems.

The use of 3d printing technology seems to be a promising way for low cost prototyping, not only of mechanical, but also of optical components or systems. It is especially useful in applications where customized equipment repeatedly is subject to immediate destruction, as in experimental detonics and the like. Due to the nature of the 3D-printing process, there is a certain inner texture and therefore inhomogeneous optical behaviour to be taken into account, which also indicates mechanical anisotropy. Recent investigations are dedicated to quantification of optical properties of such printed bodies and derivation of corresponding optimization strategies for the printing process. Beside mounting, alignment and illumination means, also refractive and reflective elements are subject to investigation. The proposed measurement methods are based on an imaging nearfield scatterometer for combined volume and surface scatter measurements as proposed in previous papers. In continuation of last year’s paper on the use of near field imaging, which basically is a reflective shadowgraph method, for characterization of glossy surfaces like printed matter or laminated material, further developments are discussed. The device has been extended for observation of photoelasticity effects and therefore homogeneity of polarization behaviour. A refined experimental set-up is introduced. Variation of plane of focus and incident angle are used for separation of various the images of the layers of the surface under test, cross and parallel polarization techniques are applied. Practical examples from current research studies are included.

Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) and Electron Beam Melting (EBM) 3D printing technologies were utilized to create lightweight, optical grade mirrors out of AlSi10Mg aluminum and Ti6Al4V titanium alloys at the University of Arizona in Tucson. The mirror prototypes were polished to meet the λ/20 RMS and λ/4 P-V surface figure requirements. The intent of this project was to design topologically optimized mirrors that had a high specific stiffness and low surface displacement. Two models were designed using Altair Inspire software, and the mirrors had to endure the polishing process with the necessary stiffness to eliminate print-through. Mitigating porosity of the 3D printed mirror blanks was a challenge in the face of reconciling new printing technologies with traditional optical polishing methods. The prototypes underwent Hot Isostatic Press (HIP) and heat treatment to improve density, eliminate porosity, and relieve internal stresses. Metal 3D printing allows for nearly unlimited topological constraints on design and virtually eliminates the need for a machine shop when creating an optical quality mirror. This research can lead to an increase in mirror mounting support complexity in the manufacturing of lightweight mirrors and improve overall process efficiency. The project aspired to have many future applications of light weighted 3D printed mirrors, such as spaceflight. This paper covers the design/fab/polish/test of 3D printed mirrors, thermal/structural finite element analysis, and results.

The Area Defense Anti-Munitions (ADAM) is a low cost and effective high power laser weapon system. It’s designed to address and negate important threats such as short-range rockets, UAVs, and small boats. Many critical optical components operate in the system. The optics and mounts must accommodate thermal and mechanical stresses, plus maintain an exceptional wave front during operation. Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company (LMSSC) developed, designed, and currently operates ADAM. This paper covers the design and development of a key monolithic, flexured, titanium mirror mount that was manufactured by CalRAM using additive processes.

We compare a design innovation of an elliptically framed tip-tilt optical tracker with an existing circularly framed tracker for the Navy Precision Optical Interferometer. The tracker stabilizes a 12.5 cm stellar beam on a target hundreds of meters away and requires an increase in operational frequency. We reduced mass and size by integrating an elliptical mirror as one of the rotating components, which eliminated a rotating frame. We used the same materials as the existing tracker; however, light-weighted both the aluminum frame and Zerodur® mirror. We generated a computer-aided design model, converted it into a finite element model and performed modal analysis on two load cases. In load case 1, we tied down three points on the bottom surface of the tracker corresponding to the tie-down points of the comparison tracker. This reveals a first mode (lowest) frequency of 140 Hz, a factor of two over the baseline tracker’s first mode frequency of 67 Hz. In load case 2, we constrained four additional points inboard of the corners of the tracker base, for a total of seven tie-downs, simulating a firmly bolted and secured mount. The first mode of vibration for this case is 211 Hz, an increase over load case 1 by a factor of 1.5 and more than three times the fundamental frequency of the existing tracker. We conclude that these geometrical changes with the additional tie-down bolts are a viable solution path forward to improve steering speed and recommend a continuation with this effort.

Laser induced damage to optical elements has been a subject of significant research, development, and improvement, since the first lasers were built over the last 50 years. Better materials, with less absorption, impurities, and defects are available, as well as surface coatings with higher laser damage resistance. However, the presence of contamination (particles, surface deposition films, or airborne) can reduce the threshold for damage by several orders of magnitude. A brief review of the anticipated laser energy levels for damage free operation is presented as a lead into the problems associated with contamination for ultraviolet (UV) laser systems. As UV lasers become more common in applications especially in areas such as lithography, these problems have limited reliability and added to costs. This has been characterized as Airborne Molecular Contamination (AMC) in many published reports. Normal engineering guidelines such as screening materials within the optical compartment for low outgassing levels is the first step. The use of the NASA outgassing database (or similar test methods) with low Total Mass Loss (TML) and Condensed Collected Volatiles Collected Mass (CVCM) is a good baseline. Energetic UV photons are capable of chemical bond scission and interaction with surface contaminant or airborne materials results in deposition of obscuring film laser footprints that continue to degrade laser system performance. Laser systems with average powers less than 5 mW have been shown to exhibit aggressive degradation. Lessons learned over the past 15 years with UV laser contamination and steps to reduce risk will be presented.

We address the problem that larger spaceborne mirrors require greater sectional thickness to achieve a sufficient first eigen frequency that is resilient to launch loads, and to be stable during optical telescope assembly integration and test, this added thickness results in unacceptable added mass if we simply scale up solutions for smaller mirrors. Special features, like cathedral ribs, arch, chamfers, and back-side following the contour of the mirror face have been considered for these studies. For computational efficiency, we have conducted detailed analysis on various configurations of a 800 mm hexagonal segment and of a 1.2-m mirror, in a manner that they can be constrained by manufacturing parameters as would be a 4-m mirror. Furthermore each model considered also has been constrained by cost-effective machining practice as defined in the SCHOTT Mainz factory. Analysis on variants of this 1.2-m mirror has shown a favorable configuration. We have then scaled this optimal configuration to 4-m aperture. We discuss resulting parameters of costoptimized 4-m mirrors. We also discuss the advantages and disadvantages this analysis reveals of going to cathedral rib architecture on 1-m class mirror substrates.

A key consideration in defining a space telescope mission is definition of the optical materials. This selection defines both the performance of the system and system complexity and cost. Optimal material selection for system stability must consider the thermal environment and its variation. Via numerical simulations, we compare the thermal and structural-mechanical behavior of ZERODUR^® and SiC as mirror substrates for telescope assemblies in space. SiC has significantly larger CTE values then ZERODUR^®, but also its thermal diffusivity k/(ρc_p) is larger, and that helps to homogenize thermal gradients in the mirror. Therefore it is not obvious at first glance which material performs with better dimensional stability under realistic unsteady, inhomogeneous thermal loads. We specifically examine the telescope response to transient, gradient driving, thermal environments representative of low- and high-earth- orbits.

NASA’s Advanced Mirror Technology Development (AMTD) program has been developing the means to design and build the future generations of space based telescopes. With the nearing completion of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the astrophysics community is already starting to define the requirements for follow on observatories. The restrictions of available launch vehicles and the possibilities of planned future vehicles have fueled the competition between monolithic primaries (with better optical quality) and segmented primaries (with larger apertures, but with diffraction, costs and figure control issues). Regardless of the current shroud sizes and lift capacities, these competing architectures share the need for rapid design tools. As part of the AMTD program a number of tools have been developed and tested to speed up the design process. Starting with the Arnold Mirror Modeler (which creates Finite Element Models (FEM) for structural analysis) and now also feeds these models into thermal stability analyses. They share common file formats and interchangeable results. During the development of the program, numerous trade studies were created for 4 meter and 8 meter monolithic primaries, complete with support systems. Evaluation of these results has led to a better understanding of how the specification drives the results. This paper will show some of the early trade studies for typical specification requirements such as lowest mirror bending frequency and suspension system lowest frequency. The results use representative allowable stress values for each mirror substrate material and construction method and generic material properties. These studies lead to some interesting relationships between feasible designs and the realities of actually trying to build these mirrors. Much of the traditional specifications were developed for much smaller systems, where the mass and volume of the primary where a small portion of the overall satellite. JWST shows us that as the aperture grows, the primary takes up the majority of the mass and volume and the established rules need to be adjusted. For example, a small change in lowest frequency requirement can change the cost by millions of dollars.

Since last year, a number of expanded capabilities have been added to the modeler. The support the integration with thermal modeling, the program can now produce simplified thermal models with the same geometric parameters as the more detailed dynamic and even more refined stress models. The local mesh refinement and mesh improvement tools have been expanded and more user friendly. The goal is to provide a means of evaluating both monolithic and segmented mirrors to the same level of fidelity and loading conditions at reasonable man-power efforts. The paper will demonstrate most of these new capabilities.

Active and adaptive mirrors are commonly used to improve the performance of telescopes and other high performance optical systems. This paper will address the use of this analysis capability to solve a variety of other optomechanical problems that are not related to active mirrors.

This paper applies analytical means previously published by Chen and Nelson (1979) to estimate the shear stresses developed within the joints between typical cemented optical components and within opto-mechanical subassemblies made of materials with significantly different coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs) when exposed to extreme ambient temperatures. Two cemented doublet examples, one involving glasses with a large CTE mismatch and another with more equal CTEs, are analyzed. An example involving a prism made of fused silica bonded with epoxy to a titanium base also is considered.

A common mechanical failure in optical systems is inadequate stability in the supporting structure. Thermal stability is crucial for maintaining the alignment of the optical elements and achieving adequate optical performance as the environmental temperature changes. It is the responsibility of the mechanical engineer to provide adequate stability in the mechanical design. Optical engineers assume that their large-displacement non-linear codes are required to analyze the perturbations caused by mechanical deflections. However, the permitted deflections of the optical elements are usually quite small, on the order of microns for structures of meter-sized dimensions. For perturbations of this magnitude it may be shown that a non-linear solver is not required for engineering accuracies. In fact, it can be argued that the optical functions are more linear than the solid mechanics functions, of which the finite element method itself is but a linear simplification. Unified optomechanical modeling provides a vehicle for tracing offending image motions to particular optical elements and their supporting structure. The unified modeling method imports the optical elements’ imaging properties into a finite element structural model of the optical system. It convolves the elements’ motions and their optical properties in a single optomechanical modeling medium, unifying them. This provides the engineer with a tool that discloses each element’s contribution to the offending motions of the image on the detector. This paper presents the theory of unified optomechanical modeling as applied to the thermal stability of the optical image in a Nastran1 finite element model. The steps used in developing a unified optomechanical model are described in detail. Comparisons of the unified modeling technique to both analytical and empirical validation studies are shown.

The lithography system in a high energy light source, the system refractive lens, absorbs the heat from the light source. The light source’s power is uniformly distributed on the reticle side. The incident rays’ power density is calculated by radiometry in each lens’ surface. The lens heat absorption ratio depends on the optical glass species, quality, and wavelength. The optical glass’ higher internal transmittance means less heat absorption; meanwhile, in different conditions, the lens’ refractive index will change with temperature. Other researchers have tried to calculate the lens temperature distribution; this study applies the Finite Element Method (FEM), radiometry, and ray tracing to solve the lens temperature distribution. Each incident ray’s path was separated into many sections, and the heat absorption was calculated for each section. Therefore, the heat generated in incident ray sections were weighted to finite element grids and the temperature distribution was solved. The lens’ non uniform temperature distribution will cause the incident ray’s Optical Path Difference (OPD). Each incident ray’s OPD can be fit by Zernike polynomials; the fitting results can be input into optical software to evaluate the thermal effect on lens heat absorption.

Optical designers assume a mathematically derived statistical distribution of the relevant design parameters for their Monte Carlo tolerancing simulations. However, there may be significant differences between the assumed distributions and the likely outcomes from manufacturing. Of particular interest for this study are the data analysis techniques and how they may be applied to optical and mechanical tolerance decisions. The effect of geometric factors and mechanical glass properties on lens manufacturability will be also be presented. Although the present work concerns lens grinding and polishing, some of the concepts and analysis techniques could also be applied to other processes such molding and single-point diamond turning.

Optical surfaces are usually machined by grinding and polishing. To achieve short polishing times it is necessary to grind with best possible form accuracy and with low sub surface damages. This is possible by using very fine grained grinding tools for the finishing process. These however often show time dependent properties regarding cutting ability in conjunction with tool wear. Fine grinding tools in the optics are often pellet-tools. For a successful grinding process the tools must show a constant self-sharpening performance. A constant, at least predictable wear and cutting behavior is crucial for a deterministic machining. This work describes a method to determine the characteristics of pellet grinding tools by tests conducted with a single pellet. We investigate the determination of the effective material removal rate and the derivation of the G-ratio. Especially the change from the newly dressed via the quasi-stationary to the worn status of the tool is described. By recording the achieved roughness with the single pellet it is possible to derive the roughness expect from a series pellet tool made of pellets with the same specification. From the results of these tests the usability of a pellet grinding tool for a specific grinding task can be determined without testing a comparably expensive serial tool. The results are verified by a production test with a serial tool under series conditions. The collected data can be stored and used in an appropriate data base for tool characteristics and be combined with useful applications.

The process of ablation in obsidianus lapis is mainly governed by pulse energy from the laser source and scanning speed. The rate of material ablation is influenced by chemical and physical properties. In this work, laser energy at 1064 nm, has been used for ablation behavior in Q-switch regime. A >40 W, average power Nd:YAG source with pulse energies ranging from 3mJ to nearly 7 mJ, achieved surface damages up to 160 μm of depth. Photo-mechanical ablation in terms of scan speed showed a maximum depth of nearly 500 μm at 130 mm/s. The maximum pulse energy of 12 mJ resulted in ablation of 170 μm depth. Highly efficient ablation in obsidianus lapis for artistic work is an interesting field of application.

The aspherical plastic lens is widely used in commercial optical products. Warpage and residue stress are two important factors that influence wavefront error. Several investigators have discussed warpage. We propose a methodology to study the effect of residue stress on wavefront error. Mold flow software was adopted to calculate the residue stress in injection processes. Optical software was used to find optical ray paths through the lens. Corresponding Optical Path Different (OPD) in each ray path was simulated by self-developed software. A 50-mm diameter plastic lens was used in this study. The mild- and high-frequency wavefront errors and the stress OPD effect at the injection area were found to be a result of the molding process. The proposed methodology was found to be very suitable for finding the effect of residue stress on wavefront error in plastic lenses.

Visible-near infrared (Vis-NIR) and short wave infrared (SWIR) hyperspectral imaging (HSI) are gaining interest in the food sorting industry. As for traditional machine vision (MV), spectral image registration is an important step which affects the quality of the sorting system. Unfortunately, it currently still remains challenging to accurately register the images acquired with the different imagers as this requires a reference with good contrast over the full spectral range. Therefore, the objective of this work was to develop an accurate high contrast checkerboard over the full spectral range. From the investigated white and dark materials, Teflon and Acktar were found to present very good contrast over the full spectral range from 400 to 2500 nm, with a minimal contrast ratio of 60% in the Vis-NIR and 98 % in the SWIR. The Metal Velvet self-adhesive coating from Acktar was selected as it also provides low specular reflectance. This was taped onto a near-Lambertian polished Teflon plate and one out of two squares were removed after laser cutting the dark coating with an accuracy below 0.1 mm. As standard technologies such as nano-second pulsed lasers generated unwanted damages on both materials, a pulsed femto-second laser setup from Lasea with 60µm accuracy was used to manufacture the checkerboard. This pattern was monitored with an Imec Vis-NIR and a Headwall SWIR HSI pushbroom hyperspectral camera. Good contrast was obtained over the full range of both HSI systems and the estimated effective focal length for the Vis-NIR HSI was determined with computer vision to be 0.5 mm, close to the lens model at high contrast.

Unit moment analysis minimizes the computational overhead associated with mirror mount design. Since mirrors operate in the linear domain with respect to stress/strain, it is possible to use the principle of superposition to determine overall optical surface deflection from a variety of sources. Surface deflection is calculated by FEA (finite element analysis) when applying unit loads at single mounting point. Deflection coefficients relating moments with surface deflection can be derived from the results of this analysis. These deflection coefficients are then applied, using the principle of superposition, to find the maximum tolerable moments associated with the mirror mount. Finally, manufacturing tolerances as well as environmental effects can be included to determine the required mirror mount compliance. This design approach is applicable to a wide range of mounting types, including classical kinematic and flexure mounts.

The 3-D X-ray diffraction microscope is a new nondestructive tool for the three-dimensional characterization of mesoscopic materials structure. A flexural-pivot-based precision linear stage has been designed to perform a wire scan as a differential aperture for the 3-D diffraction microscope at the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. The mechanical design and finite element analyses of the flexural stage, as well as its initial mechanical test results with laser interferometer are described in this paper.

The Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics (CIOMP) team is developing the Giant Steerable Science Mirror (GSSM) for Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) which will get into the preliminary design phase in 2016. To develop the passive support structure system for the largest elliptic-plan flat mirror and smoothest tracking mechanism for the gravity-invariant condition, CIOMP is designing and building a 1/4 scale, functionally accurate version of the GSSM prototype. The prototype will incorporate the same optical-mechanical system and electric control system as the GSSM. The size of the prototype mirror is 898.5mm×634mm×12.5mm with elliptic-plan figure and will be supported by 18 points whiffletree on axial and 12 points whiffletree on lateral. The mirror surface figure will be evaluated by SlopeRMS which is the final evaluation method used in the actual GSSM. The prototype allows the mirror point to and be tested in five specified gravity orientations and meet the requirements of SlopeRMS. The prototype testing platform will have the interfaces with direct drive systems. The jitter testing will be implemented on the prototype system to verify the bearing, the encoder, the servo control algorithm in the low speed up to 5 arcsecond per second. The total prototype system configured mirror surface figure will be better than 1 micro radian SlopeRMS in each tested orientation. The positioner jitter will be less than 0.1 arcsecond RMS for tilt and rotator axis respectively and will be analyzed with frequency domain to meet the requirements of the TMT adaptive optics system. The pre-construction will be completed at the beginning of 2016 and provide the technical support to the preliminary design of GSSM.

The radius of curvature is one of the most important specifications for spherical optics [1]. There are several methods and devices currently on the market that can be used to measure it, including optical level, non-contact laser interferometer (Interferometer), a probe-contact profiler (Profilometer), the centering machine and three-point contact ball diameter meter (Spherometer). The amount that can be measured with a radius of curvature of the lens aperture range depends on the interferometer standard lens f / number and lens of R / number (radius of curvature divided by the clear aperture of the spherical surface ratio between them). Unfortunately, for lens with diameter greater than 300 mm, the device is limited by the size of the holding fixture lenses or space. This paper aims to provide a novel surface contour detection method and machine, named “CMM spherometry by probe compensation,” to measure the radius and thickness of the curvature of the optical surface by a coordinate measurement machine (CMM). In order to obtain more accurate optimization results, we used probe and temperature compensation to discuss the effect. The trace samples and the measurement results of CMM and the centering machine, which has top and bottom autocollimators, are compared.

For meeting the requirements of the high-precision telescopes, the design of collimator is essential. The diameter of the collimator should be larger than that of the target for the using of alignment. Special supporting structures are demanded to reduce the deformation of gravity and to control the surface deformation induced by the mounting force when inspecting large-aperture primary mirrors. By using finite element analysis, a ZERODUR® mirror of a diameter of 620 mm will be analyzed to obtain the deformation induced by the supporting structures. Zernike polynomials will also be adopted to fit the optical surface and separate corresponding aberrations. Through the studies under different boundary conditions and supporting positions of the inner ring, it is concluded that the optical performance will be excellent under a strong enough supporter.

We present the development of a 1-m lightweight mirror system for a spaceborne electro-optical camera. The mirror design was optimized to satisfy the performance requirements under launch loads and space environment. The mirror made of Zerodur® has pockets at the back surface and three square bosses at the rim. Metallic bipod flexures support the mirror at the bosses and adjust the mirror’s surface distortion due to gravity. We also show an analytical formulation of the bipod flexure, where compliance and stiffness matrices of the bipod flexure are derived to estimate theoretical performance and to make initial design guidelines. Optomechanical performances such as surface distortions due to gravity is explained. Environmental verification of the mirror is achieved by vibration tests.