This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 8956, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, and Conference Committee listing.

In this study we describe a new theranostic nanostytem to combine those functions together. GX1, the peptide identified by phage display technology, is a tumor vasculature endothelium specific ligand. Endostar, a novel recombinant human endostatin, has been proved to inhibit tumor angiogenesis. In this study, Endostar-loaded PLA nanoparticles (EPNPs) were first prepared, and then GX1 was coupled to the surface of EPNPs for targeting therapy, last a near infrared (NIR) dye IRDye 800CW was conjugated to the surface of EPNPs for monitoring the biodistributon. This GX1-EPNPs-NIR dye IRDye 800CW (GEN) multifunction drug delivery system not only facilitates efficient delivery of chemotherapeutic agents to tumor site, while minimizing systemic toxicity and side effects, but also enables to real time monitor tumor targeting in vivo. Compare to the Endostar and EPNPs, the GEN inhibited the subcutaneous colon tumor more obviously both in tumor volume and bioluminescence imaging (BLI) light intensity during the 10 days drug treatment.

Simultaneous dynamic fluorescent imaging of a suitable untargeted tracer in conjunction with any molecular targeted fluorescent agent has been shown to be a powerful approach for quantifying cancer-specific cell surface receptors in vivo in the presence of non-specific uptake and tracer delivery variability. The identification of a “suitable” untargeted tracer (i.e., one having equivalent plasma and tissue delivery pharmacokinetics to the targeted tracer) for every targeted tracer, however, may not always be feasible or could require extensive testing. This work presents a “deconvolution” approach capable of correcting for plasma and tissue-delivery pharmacokinetic differences between tracers by quantifying dynamic differences in targeted and untargeted tracer uptake in a receptor-free tissue (one devoid of targeted molecular species) and correcting uptake in all other tissues accordingly. This deconvolution correction approach is evaluated in theoretical models and explored in an in vivo mouse xenograft model of human glioma. In the animal experiments, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR: a receptor known to be overexpressed in the investigated glioma cell line) was targeted using a fluorescent tracer with very different plasma pharmacokinetics than a second untargeted fluorescent tracer. Without correcting for these differences, the dual-tracer approach yielded substantially higher estimations of EGFR concentration in all tissues than expected; however, deconvolution correction was able to produce estimates that matched ex vivo validation.

Recently, there has been a great amount of interest in nanoparticles which are able to provide a platform with high contrast for multiple imaging modalities in order to advance the tools available to biomedical researchers and physicians. However, many nanoparticles do not have ideal properties to provide high contrast in different imaging modes. In order to address this, ultrasmall lanthanide doped oxide and fluoride nanoparticles with strong NIR to NIR upconversion fluorescence and a strong magnetic response for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been developed. Specifically, these nanoparticles incorporate gadolinium, dysprosium, or a combination of both into the nano-crystalline host to achieve the magnetic properties. Thulium, erbium, and neodymium codopants provide the strong NIR absorption and emission lines that allow for deeper tissue imaging since near infrared light is not strongly absorbed or scattered by most tissues within this region. This also leads to better image quality and lower necessary excitation intensities. As a part of the one pot synthesis, these nanoparticles are coated with peg, pmao, or d-glucuronic acid to make them water soluble, biocompatible, and bioconjugable due to the available carboxyl or amine groups. Here, the synthesis, morphological characterization, magnetic response, NIR emission, and the quantum yield will be discussed. Cytotoxicity tested through cell viability at varying concentrations of nanoparticles in growth media will also be discussed.

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is emerging as a key in vivo imaging technique. Endogenous contrast agents alone are insufficient to obtain high contrast images necessitating a need for synthetic exogenous contrast agents. In recent years a great deal of research has been devoted to the development of nanoparticle based contrast agents with little effort on molecular systems. Here we report on the design and evaluation of BODIPY inspired molecular photoacoustic contrast agents (MPACs). Through chemical modification of the established BODIPY fluorophore, increasing its vibrational freedom and appending with non-emissive functionalities, it is demonstrated that the S₀-S₁ absorbed excitation energy is redirected towards a nonradiative excited-state decay pathway. Optical and photoacoustic characterization of the modified BODIPY MPACs demonstrates a stronger photoacoustic signal compared to the corresponding fluorescent BODIPY probes.

Microencapsulation of drugs and imaging agents in the same carrier is of great significance for simultaneous detection and treatment of diseases. In this work, we have developed a tri-axial electro-flow focusing (TEFF) device using three needles with a novel concentric arrangement to one-step form multilayered microparticles. The TEFF process can be characterized as a multi-fluidic compound cone-jet configuration in the core of a high-speed coflowing gas stream under an axial electric field. The tri-axial liquid jet eventually breaks up into multilayered droplets. To validate the method, the effect of main process parameters on characteristics of the cone and the jet has been studied experimentally. The applied electric field can dramatically promote the stability of the compound cone and enhance the atomization of compound liquid jets. Microparticles with both three-layer, double-layer and single-layer structures have been obtained. The results show that the TEFF technique has great benefits in fabricating multilayered microparticles at smaller scales. This method will be able to one-step encapsulate multiple therapeutic and imaging agents for biomedical applications such as multi-modal imaging, drug delivery and biomedicine.

Acrolein, a very reactive aldehyde, is a culprit in the biochemical cascade after primary, mechanical spinal cord injury (SCI), which leads to the destruction of tissue initially unharmed, referred to as “secondary injury”. Additionally, in models of multiple sclerosis (MS) and some clinical research, acrolein levels are significantly increased. Due to its ability to make more copies of itself in the presence of tissue via lipid peroxidation, researchers believe that acrolein plays a role in the increased destruction of the central nervous system in both SCI and MS. Hydralazine, an FDAapproved hypotensive drug, has been shown to scavenge acrolein, but its side effects and short half life at the appropriate dose for acrolein scavenging must be improved for beneficial clinical translation. Therefore, a nanomedical approach has been designed using silica nanoparticles as a porous delivery vehicle hydralazine. The silica particles are formed in a one-step method that incorporates poly(ethylene) glycol (PEG), a stealth molecule, directly onto the nanoparticles. As an additional avenue for study, a natural product in green tea, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), has been explored for its ability to react with acrolein, disabling its reactive capabilities. Upon demonstration of attenuating acrolein, EGCG's delivery may also be improved using the nanomedical approach. The current work exposes the potential of using silica nanoparticles as a delivery vehicle and EGCG's antioxidant capabilities in B35 neuroblastoma cells exposed to acrolein. We also measure nanotoxicity to individual rat neurons using high-throughput image scanning cytometry.

The fluorescent tracer agent 2,5-bis[N-(1-carboxy-2-hydroxy)]carbamoyl-3,6-diaminopyrazine, designated APC-2, has been developed with properties and attributes necessary for use as a direct measure of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Comparison to known standard exogenous GFR agents in animal models has demonstrated an excellent correlation. A clinical trial to demonstrate this same correlation in humans is in preparation. A battery of formal toxicity tests necessary for regulatory clearance to proceed with a clinical trial has been recently completed on this new fluorescent tracer agent. These include single dose toxicity studies in rats and dogs to determine overall toxicity and toxicokinetics of the compound. Blood compatibility, mutation assay, chromosomal aberration assay, and several other assays were also completed. Toxicity assessments were based on mortality, clinical signs, body weight, food consumption and anatomical pathology. Blood samples were collected to assess pharmacokinetic parameters including half-life, area under the curve, and clearance. Urine samples were collected to assess distribution. Doses of up to 200-300 times the estimated human dose were administered. No test-article related effects were noted on body weight, food consumption, ophthalmic observations and no abnormal pathology was seen in either macroscopic or microscopic evaluations of any organs or tissues. All animals survived to scheduled sacrifice. Transient discoloration of skin and urine was noted at the higher dose levels in both species as expected from a highly fluorescent compound and was not considered pathological. Thus initial toxicology studies of this new fluorescent tracer agent APC-2 have resulted in no demonstrable pathological test article concerns.

Curcumin-loaded PLGA microcapsules are fabricated by a liquid-driving coaxial flow focusing device. In the process, a stable coaxial cone-jet configuration is formed under the action of a coflowing liquid stream and the coaxial liquid jet eventually breaks up into microcapsules because of flow instability. This process can be well controlled by adjusting the flow rates of three phases including the driving PVA water solution, the outer PLGA ethyl acetate solution and the inner curcumin propylene glycol solution. Confocal and SEM imaging methods clearly indicate the core-shell structure of the resultant microcapsules. The encapsulation rate of curcumin in PLGA is measured to be more than 70%, which is much higher than the tranditional methods such as emulsion. The size distribution of resultant microcapsules under different conditions is presented and compared. An in vitro release simulation platform is further developed to verify the feasibility and reliability of the method.

Fluorescence quenching properties of copper(II) ions have been used for designing Cu(II) sensitive fluorescent molecular probes. In this paper, we demonstrate that static quenching plays a key role in free Cu(II)-mediated fluorescence quenching of a near infrared (NIR) fluorescent dye cypate. The Stern-Volmer quenching constant was calculated to be K_SV = 970,000 M^-1 in 25 mM MES buffer, pH 6.5 at room temperature. We synthesized LS835, a compound containing cypate attached covalently to chelated Cu(II) to study fluorescence quenching by chelated Cu(II). The fluorescence quenching mechanism of chelated Cu(II) is predominantly dynamic or collisional quenching. The quenching efficiency of chelated Cu(II) was calculated to be 58% ± 6% in dimethylsulfoxide at room temperature. Future work will involve further characterization of the mechanism of NIR fluorescence quenching by Cu(II) and testing its reversibility for potential applications in designing fluorophore-quencher based molecular probes for biological imaging.

Despite the major role of the matrix (the insoluble environment around cells) in physiology and pathology, there are very few and limited methods that can quantify the surface chemistry of a 3D matrix such as a biomaterial or tissue ECM. This study describes a novel optical-based methodology that can quantify the surface chemistry (density of adhesion ligands for particular cell adhesion receptors) of a matrix in situ. The methodology utilizes fluorescent analogs (markers) of the receptor of interest and a series of binding assays, where the amount of bound markers on the matrix is quantified via spectral multi-photon imaging. The study provides preliminary results for the quantification of the ligands for the two major collagen-binding integrins (α₁β₁, α₂β₁) in porous collagen scaffolds that have been shown to be able to induce maximum regeneration in transected peripheral nerves. The developed methodology opens the way for quantitative descriptions of the insoluble microenvironment of cells in physiology and pathology, and for integrating the matrix in quantitative models of cell signaling. α

Until recently, many contrast agents widely used in biological imaging have absorbed and emitted in the visible region, limiting their usefulness for deeper tissue imaging. In order to push the boundaries of deep tissue imaging with non-ionizing radiation, contrast agents in the near infrared (NIR) regime, which is not strongly absorbed or scattered by most tissues, are being sought after. Upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) are attractive candidates since their upconversion emission is tunable with a very narrow bandwidth and they do not photobleach or blink. The upconversion produced by the nanoparticles can be tailored for NIR to NIR by carefully choosing the lanthanide dopants and dopant ratios such as KYb₂F₇: RE³⁺ (RE = Tm, Er). Spectroscopic characterization was done by analyzing absorption, fluorescence, and quantum yield data. In order to study the toxicity of the nanoparticles Monkey Retinal Endothelial Cells (MREC) were cultivated in 24 well plates and then treated with nanoparticles at different concentrations in triplicate to obtain the optimal concentration for in vivo experiments. It will be shown that these UCNPs do not elicit a strong toxic response such as quantum dots and some noble metal nanoparticles. 3-D optical slices of nanoparticle treated fibroblast cells were imaged using a confocal microscope where the nucleus and cytoplasm were stained with DAPI and Alexa Fluor respectively. These results presented support the initial assumption, which suggests that KYb2F7: RE³⁺ would be excellent candidates for NIR contrast agents.

In this contribution we provide an overview of current investigations on optically active particles (nanodiamonds, upconversion phospors) for biohybrid and sensing applications. Due to their outstanding properties nanodiamonds gain attention in various application elds such as microelectronics, optical monitoring, medicine, and biotechnology. Beyond the typical diamond properties such as high thermal conductivity and extreme hardness, the carbon surface and its various functional groups enable diverse chemical and biological surface functionalization. At Fraunhofer IKTS-MD we develop a customization of material surfaces via integration of chemically modi ed nanodiamonds at variable surfaces, e.g bone implants and pipelines. For the rst purpose, nanodiamonds are covalently modi ed at their surface with amino or phosphate functionalities that are known to increase adhesion to bone or titanium alloys. The second type of surface is approached via mechanical implementation into coatings. Besides nanodiamonds, we also investigate the properties of upconversion phosphors. In our contribution we show how upconversion phosphors are used to verify sterilization processes via a change of optical properties due to sterilizing electron beam exposure.

We review our work on hybrid gold nanoparticles that are optimized for their bright fluorescence and photobleaching resistance. Our first goal in using gold nanoparticles is to load a large density of photoactive molecules onto a biocompatible nanoplatform. Our second goal is to optimize the molecule-gold nanoparticle interaction to improve the photoactive properties, in particular their photobleaching resistance. In this project gold nanoparticles have typical dimensions in the 50-100 nm that are suitable for in vivo imaging and photodynamic therapy. Their geometrical shapes include nanoshell, spheres, rods, bipyramids and stars.

Near-Infrared (NIR) absorbing carbocyanine dyes have been increasingly used in analytical, biological and medical fields as they can be useful for developing bioanalytical and biomedical methods. The utilization of the NIR spectral region (650-900 nm) is advantageous and is due to the inherently lower background interference and the high molar absorptivities of NIR chromophores. NIR dyes typically have relatively lower fluorescent quantum yield as compared to visible fluorophores, but much higher molar absorptivities which more than compensates for the lower quantum yields regarding detection limits. Fluorescence intensity of NIR dyes significantly increases by enclosing several dye molecules in silica nanoparticles. Self quenching may become a problem for carbocyanines at such high concentrations that may be present in the silica nanoparticles. Dyes that have large Stokes’ shift can significantly decrease this problem. Increased Stokes’ shift for carbocyanines dyes can be achieved by substituting meso position halogens with a linker containing aliphatic or aromatic amino moiety which also serves as a covalent linker for attaching the dye molecule to the nanoparticle backbone. The primary applications of these particles are for bright fluorescent labels to be used in bioanalytical applications such as immunochemistry, flow cytometry, etc. This work also discusses the use of NIR dyes as enzyme substrates. NIR dyes can be used as enzyme substrates and hence for characterization of enzyme activity. The well characterized alkenesulfonate monooxygenase enzyme was chosen for these studies. Carbocyanines containing alkylsulfonate moieties do not exhibit significant fluorescence change upon binding to biomolecules however otherwise identical NIR dye analogs that contain alkylaldehyde moiety at the same position do exhibit changes which can be utilized for characterization of alkenesulfonate monooxygenase enzyme activity using near infrared dyes as substrates. In this study a new class of sulfonated penta- and heptamethine dyes were used as substrates in vitro utilizing a photo-reduced riboflavin mononucleotide (FMN) with a glucose/ glucose-oxygenase oxygen scavenging system. Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) detected CZE was utilized to detect the sulfonated and de-sulfonated carbocyanines. The lower fluorescence quantum yield of the less water soluble alkylaldehyde analogs was detected and enzyme activity was characterized.

The variety of nanoparticles developed by numerous investigators has presented a diverse platform for various optical imaging applications in biomedicine. We have previously reported that the FDA-approved chromophore Indocyanine Green (ICG) can be successfully encapsulated by cross-linked poly-allylamine hydrochloride (PAH)-Disodium Monophosphate (Na₂HPO₄) to form a nanoparticle for near-infrared imaging applications. The diameter of the constructs is dependent on the charge ratio between the polymer and salt used to encapsulate the chromophore. Modifications of the synthesis methods can alter the photophysical properties of the capsules, either through the adjustment of the charge ratio between PAH and Na₂HPO₄ or concentration of ICG successfully impregnated into the capsule. Through understanding the effects of tuning the nanoparticle properties, the photophysical characteristics of the constructs can be optimized. Here we present the results of adjusting the diameter of the nanoparticle and amount of ICG on the hydrodynamic diameters, absorption and fluorescence characteristics, and the relative fluorescence quantum yield. Optimizing the photophysical properties of the constructs can lead to increased imaging sensitivity and contrast for potential translational applications, including tumor imaging, which may utilize these nanoconstructs.

NIR-to-visible up-conversion nanomaterials have been investigated in many promising applications including nextgeneration displays, solar cells, and biological labels. When doped with different trivalent lanthanide ions, NaYF4 nanoparticles can produce up-converted emission from visible to infra-red wavelengths. However, the quantum yield of this class of materials is low. Noble metals in the vicinity of the phosphor can increase the phosphorescence by local field enhancement due to plasmonic resonances, and by modification of the radiative rate of the phosphor. Most previous studies have investigated the phenomenon by placing nanophosphors onto a metal substrate, or by fabrication of nano structures with spacers such as polymers, dielectric materials (silica). By contrast, we have studied the interaction between the luminescence and the surface plasmon using a core-shell type nanostructure where a uniform shell of silver is shown to grown on doped-NaYF4 nanophosphors by Ostwald ripening. We further demonstrate the proximity effect of metal-enhanced luminescence by exciting an undoped NaYF4 shell. The result shows a significant synergistic enhancement of up-conversion luminescence due to the active shell as spacer layer. In addition, we have shown this novel nanostructure may be useful in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS).

Two-photon excitation of fluorescent proteins (FPs) is widely used in imaging whole organisms or living tissues. Many different FPs are now available but these proteins have only been optimized for their one-photon properties. We have developed a technique for screening entire libraries of E. coli colonies expressing FPs that utilizes multiple wavelengths of linear excitation as well as two-photon excitation. Single mutations in a particular protein that affect one or twophoton properties are easily identified, providing new views of structure/function relationships. An amplified femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser and a spectrally filtered lamp source are used to acquire the fluorescence signals of up to ~1000 E. coli colonies on a standard Petri dish. Automation of the analysis and acquisition of the fluorescent signals makes it feasible to rapidly screen tens of thousands of colonies. In a proof of principle experiment with the commonly used EGFP, we used two rounds of error prone PCR and selection to evolve new proteins with shifted absorption and increased two-photon cross sections at 790nm. This method of screening, coupled with careful measurements of photo bleaching dynamics and two-photon cross sections, should make it possible to optimize a wide variety of fluorescent proteins and biosensors for use in two-photon microscopes.

The aim of the work was to study the participation of hydrogen peroxide in reaction of cervical cancer cell line HeLa Kyoto on cisplatin action. Determination of hydrogen peroxide level was performed using genetically encoded fluorescent sensor HyPer2. The dependence of cell viability on cisplatin concentration was determined using MTT assay. Mechanisms of cell death as well as HyPer2 reaction was revealed by flow cytometry after 6-hours of incubation with cisplatin in different concentrations. Cisplatin used in low concentrations had no effect on hydrogen peroxide level in HeLa Kyoto cells. Increase of HyPer2 fluorescence was detected only after exposure with cisplatin in high concentration. The reaction was not the consequence of cell death.

The results of the theoretical and experimental investigations of the emission properties of the partitioned carbon nanotubes are presented in this paper. We have calculated ionization potential and energy gap of the energy spectrum for stable carbon partitioned carbon nanotube (15,15) of the smallest diameter by means of the tight-binding method. Also we have developed the original synthesis technique of the partitioned carbon nanostructures. This synthesis technology provides the high efficiency of the partitioned carbon nanotubes growth. As a result of calculations it was established that the emission properties of the infinite partitioned carbon nanotubes at the increasing of the distance between the bridges are better in comparison to the emission properties of the hollow nanotubes.

In the process of field emission surface of carbon nanotubes is heated, that may lead to the rapid destruction of the emitter based on them. Therefore, the problems of heat reducing and the destruction of carbon nanotubes prevention are important. Experimental study of the thermal conductivity of isolated CNT is time consuming and expensive process, so it is better to use the numerical models to understand the process of heat transfer in carbon nanotubes. In this work the change of the nanotubes thermal conductivity was investigated with increasing length and diameter of the nanotubes and the number of defects Stone-Wales.

The results of theoretical study of bilayer fullerene C₆₀@C₅₄₀ are presented in this paper. In order to identify regularities of internal fullerene movement in the field of the outer shell retaining potential multiwell potential of C₆₀ and C₅₄₀ fullerenes interaction was calculated. On the basis of the two-shell fullerene structure topology data and analysis of the fullerenes interaction energy surface relief possible options of C₆₀ tunneling between potential wells are predicted. Compiled forecast is confirmed by the data of numerical experiment.

Encapsulation of curcumin in PLGA microparticles is performed by a coaxial electrohydrodynamic atomization device. To optimize the process, the effects of different control parameters on morphology and size distribution of resultant microparticles are studied systemically. Four main flow modes are identified as the applied electric field intensity increases. The stable cone-jet configuration is found to be available for fabricating monodisperse microparticles with core-shell structures. The results are compared with those observed in traditional emulsion. The drug-loading efficiency is also checked. The present system is advantageous for the enhancement of particle size distribution and drug-loading efficiency in various applications such as drug delivery, biomedicine and image-guided therapy.

The use of nanometer-sized probes for single-cell studies is presented by Gary Shambat of Adamant Technologies (USA) in, "Single-cell Photonic Nanocavity Probes." This work, conducted by Shambat at Stanford University in Jelena Vukovic's lab, seeks to extend traditional nanoprobe work by being able to insert a nanobeam into a single cell without damaging the cell. By functionalizing the beam, the team enables single-cell studies, essentially taking the lab to the biological system instead of extracting the biological system for study in a lab. The probe consists of a nanobeam optical cavity resulting from the tapering a GaAs device containing InAs quantum dots and coupled to an optical fiber to enable handling. The team demonstrated the ability to insert and retract the beam from PC3 cells (prostate cancer cells) in a reversible and elastic fashion. Using this technique allowed a study of the optical properties of the cell. Cell viability in this initial work was 75%. Future work includes in vitro protein sensing and adapting chemistries for studies of intracellular targets such as proteins, all of which may find applications in fields such as drug screening.