The fundamental study on a flash water-window x-ray generator is described. This generator is composed of a high-voltage power supply, a polarity-inversion high-voltage pulser, a krytron pulser as a trigger device, an oil-diffusion pump, and a vacuum chamber with a capillary. A combined ceramic condenser of about 5 nF in the pulser is charged up to 70 kV by the power supply, and the electric charges in the condenser are discharged to the capillary in the tube after closing a gap switch by the krytron pulser. In the present work, the chamber is evacuated by the pump with a pressure of about 1 by 10^-3 Pa, and the titanium anode and cathode electrodes are employed to produce L-series characteristic x rays in the water-window range. The diameter and the length of the ferrite capillary are 2.0 and 30 mm, respectively. Both the cathode voltage and the discharge current displayed damped oscillations. The peak values of the voltage and current increased when the charging voltage was increased, and their maximum values were minus 24 kV and 2.8 kA, respectively. The pulse durations of the water-window x-rays were nearly equivalent to those of the damped oscillations of the voltage and current, and their values were less than 10 microseconds.

The fundamental study on a soft flash x-ray generator utilizing an ignitron is described. This generator consists of the following essential components: a high-voltage power supply, a high-voltage pulser having an ignitron, an oil diffusion pump, and a flash x-ray tube. The x-ray tube employs a molybdenum anode rod, a pipe-shaped carbon cathode, a polymethylmeth acrylate tube body, and a polyethylene terephthalate x-ray window. The space between the anode and the cathode electrodes (ac space) can be controlled by rotating the anode rod. The high-voltage condenser in the pulser is charged from 40 to 60 kV by the power supply, and the electric charges in the condenser are discharged to the tube by the ignitron through a 2.0 m coaxial cable. Because the maximum anode voltage of the ignitron is 50 kV, a free-air gap switch is employed in order to increase the high-voltage durability. In the present work, the anode electrode is connected to the ground, and the negative high-voltage output is applied to the cathode electrode. The flash x-rays are then produced. The peak cathode voltage and tube current had values of minus 56 kV and 11.5 kA, respectively, with a charging voltage of 60 kV and an ac space of 6.0 mm, and the pulse widths were less than 300 ns.

The construction and the fundamental studies of a high-dose- rate stroboscopic x-ray generator utilizing a hot-cathode radiation tube for high-speed radiography are described. This generator consists of the following essential components: a constant high-voltage power supply, an energy-storage oil condenser of about 0.1 (mu) F, a grid pulser, a dc power supply for the filament, and an x-ray tube. The x-ray tube is a glass-enclosed hot-cathode triode and is composed of the following major parts: an anode rod made of copper, a tungsten plate target, an iron focusing electrode, a tungsten hot- cathode (filament), a tungsten grid, and a glass tube body. The electron beams from the cathode are accelerated by both the grid and anode electrodes and are roughly converged to the target by the focusing electrode. In the present work, the storage condenser is charged up to 70 kV by the power supply, and the electric charges in the condenser are discharged repetitively to the x-ray tube by the grid pulser. Because the cathode current is increased by increasing the positive grid voltage, high-dose-rate repetitive x-rays are then produced. In this generator, the cathode current which is almost equivalent to the tube current is primarily regulated by the filament temperature (fulminate voltage). The pulse widths of x-rays were about 600 ns, and the maximum repetition rate was about 50 kHz. The cathode current was less than 3.1 angstrom, and the x-ray intensity had a value of 35.2 nC/kg at 0.5 m per pulse with a charging voltage of 70 kV and a filament voltage of 12 V.

We are investigating the usefulness of microchannel plate (MCP) intensifiers for imaging x-rays at high photon energies, specifically by using filtered x-rays from an electron bombardment source to generate the K_(alpha ) lines of Cu at 8.04 KeV and Mo at 17.5 KeV. These high energy lines are used to measure the resolution of an MCP based intensifier produced at Los Alamos National Laboratory. We have investigated the spot size of a fielded MCP intensifier by observing, on film, the result of a single photon excitation of microchannels. Measurement of the spot size was done with visible light microscopy. We report initial results of spot size spread in the stripline direction. We have also begun a preliminary measurement of the azimuthal anisotropy in the spatial resolution, accentuated at these energies by the inclination of the axis of the MCP channels. We concentrate on an actual 'fielded instrument' resolution, rather than ideal, for the purpose of analyzing image data captured at the NOVA Laser Facility.

Developed for x-ray diagnostics streak cameras with demountable photocathodes are described. Such type devices can be coupled through the photocathode flange of streak tube to the experimental vacuum chamber via gate valve or directly. Remarkable features of these cameras are demountable photocathode schemes. Important mechanical and performance specifications of the x-ray streak cameras including dynamic characteristics are presented. The main design considerations of our cameras are compactness, versatility, and reliability. Our camera usually consists of image converter tube, image intensifier and applied electronics. X-ray streak cameras are constructed usually on the basis of visible spectrum streak tubes modified. This paper reviews the evolution of various x- ray sensitive camera versions developed in General Physics Institute.

The precursor air shock wave (PAS), which is propagating ahead of the detonation front in air channel, precompresses and desensitizes the unreacted explosive charges. In some conditions, the PAS causes detonation failure. This phenomenon is known as the channel effect. To investigate the mechanism of the channel effect in emulsion explosives, some experimental works have been carried out using high-speed framing camera. The results of photographic observation at the first experiments demonstrated that the difference between PAS velocity and detonation velocity was the primary factor for the channel effect. It is assumed that the decrease of the PAS velocity can prevent the channel effect. The increase of surface roughness of inner wall was adopted to decrease the PAS velocity. Some experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of surface roughness on the PAS velocity and the detonation propagation. Photographic observations were performed using rectangular tubes with sandpaper on inner ceiling wall to simulate surface roughness under various conditions. The experimental results indicate that the increase of surface roughness reduces the PAS velocity and prevents detonation failure. It is concluded that the surface roughness of wall has a great influence on detonation propagation in emulsion explosive.

The behavior of underwater shock waves generated by underwater explosion of high explosives have been investigated for many years. On spherical explosives, the behavior of underwater shock waves have also been investigated by many researchers, and the strength of the underwater shock wave far from the origin of the explosives have been known. However, there has not been the information concerning the strength or the attenuation process of the underwater shock wave close to the origin of the explosives. Therefore, the underwater shock wave close to the spherical explosives was observed by optical measurements. The results obtained by the optical measurements were compared with the results obtained by numerical calculation and pressure measurement. An arbitrary Lagrangian- Eulerian (ALE) method was used in our basic calculations. Tourmaline gauges were used in pressure measurement. The usual shadowgraph system was used to take both framing and streak photographs with an image converter camera. It concludes that the strength of the underwater shock wave decreases exponentially with the increase of distance from original explosives, and its inclination of the line was about minus 2.5 in the case of the spherical SEP and was about minus 1.8 in the case of the spherical PBX.

It is known that emulsion explosives behave non-ideally in their detonation. The behavior of the non-ideal detonation has not yet been sufficiently investigated. In order to obtain a better comprehension of the non-ideal detonation behavior, optical measurements and measurements of the velocity of the detonation wave were carried out. Streak photographs were taken by an image converter camera using a usual shadowgraph system. Five kinds of emulsion explosives which differ the aluminum contents were used in experiments. These emulsion explosives were put into copper, aluminum and PMMA containers. In case of the copper pipe container, the velocity of the detonation wave is constant at any aluminum contents. But in the case of the PMMA pipe container, the velocity of the detonation wave becomes lower in proportion to aluminum contents. The shapes of the reaction zone and the front of the detonation zone were also recognized from the streak photographs. In case of the copper pipe container, the detonation wave is plane, but in case of PMMA pipe container, the detonation wave curves near the pipe wall and its shape is a convex. It is considered that acoustic impedance of the container have effects on the propagation of the detonation wave.

Diesel engines are useful for commercial vehicles because of low fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions that cause the greenhouse effect. However, it is necessary for environmental conservation to develop clean combustion. For thirty years, the combustion phenomena of diesel engines using combustion chamber visualization techniques have been widely studied by many researchers. Since in-cylinder flame temperature affects directly on NOx characteristics in engines, this phenomena has been studied in detail in multi-cylinder diesel engines using a new method to measure the in-cylinder temperature distribution by a two color method. Typical two color methods for two dimensional temperature distribution have used negative color films as recording media. So it took several days to analyze the flame temperature. However since the new system consists of a CCD camera and computer, the analyzing time is reduced to about 10 minutes. Parametric studies on injection timings, engine loads, intake valve layouts, and EGR rates using multi-cylinder commercial engines were carried out to investigate the effect of the flame temperature on NOx concentration. Each parameter study showed that the maximum temperature which occurred in a local stoichiometric combustion area of flame is correlative with NOx emissions rather than mean temperature.

In the single-phase AC commutator motor (known as a universal motor), which is widely used in cleaners, electrical machines, etc., some problems generated by commutation sparks are wear on the brush and noise impediments. We have therefore attempted to use a high-speed camera to elucidate the commutation spark mechanism visually. The high-speed camera that we used is capable of photographing at 5,000 - 20,000,000 frames/s. Selection of a trigger module can be obtained from the operation unit and the exterior triggering signal. In this paper, we proposed an exterior trigger method that involved opening a hole of several millimeters across in the motor and using argon laser light, so that commutator segments may be photographed in position; we then conducted the experiment. This method enabled us to photograph the motor's commutator segment from any position, and we were able to confirm spark generation at every other commutator segment. Furthermore, after confirming the spark generation position of the commutator segment, we next attempted to accelerate the photographing speed to obtain more detailed photography of the moment of spark generation; we then prepared our report.

It costs a few million dollars to develop an innovative solid- state image sensor. Various image sensors with special useful functions have been proposed for individual scientific and engineering research purposes. However, the enormous cost hampers their development. Presented in this paper is an attempt to classify wide-range of requirements for high-speed image sensors for scientific and engineering use, and to combine them into a limited number of specific designs. This will serve to provide a rational overall development strategy and to reduce overlapping effort and cost for their development, and hopefully contribute to realization of some of the designs. This is a state-of-the-art paper on development of high-speed video cameras, including: (1) classification of advanced image capturing technologies required for scientific and engineering researches; (2) performance criteria for high-speed image capturing; (3) classification and comparison of currently available high- speed image capturing technologies; (4) user's requirements for electronic high-speed imagers, obtained by questionnaires and hearings; (5) comparison of PRIS (parallel readout image sensors) and ISIS (in-situ storage image sensors); (6) current status of fabrication technology of both CCD- and CMOS-image sensors, and (7) recommendation of prototype high-speed image sensors for urgent development.

Synchro-ballistic use of rotating-mirror streak cameras allows for detailed recording of high-speed events of known velocity and direction. After an introduction to the synchro-ballistic technique, this paper details two diverse applications of the technique as applied in the field of high-explosives research. In the first series of experiments detonation-front shape is recorded as the arriving detonation shock wave tilts an obliquely mounted mirror, causing reflected light to be deflected from the imaging lens. These tests were conducted for the purpose of calibrating and confirming the asymptotic detonation shock dynamics (DSD) theory of Bdzil and Stewart. The phase velocities of the events range from ten to thirty millimeters per microsecond. Optical magnification is set for optimal use of the film's spatial dimension and the phase velocity is adjusted to provide synchronization at the camera's maximum writing speed. Initial calibration of the technique is undertaken using a cylindrical HE geometry over a range of charge diameters and of sufficient length-to- diameter ratio to insure a stable detonation wave. The final experiment utilizes an arc-shaped explosive charge, resulting in an asymmetric denotation-front record. The second series of experiments consists of photographing a shaped-charge jet having a velocity range of two to nine millimeters per microsecond. To accommodate the range of velocities it is necessary to fire several tests, each synchronized to a different section of the jet. The experimental apparatus consists of a vacuum chamber to preclude atmospheric ablation of the jet tip with shocked-argon back lighting to produce a shadow-graph image.

High-speed event capturing was conducted to determine the fracture initiation load of a hot-rolled steel under rapid loading conditions. The loading tests were carried out on compact specimens which were a single edge-notched and fatigue cracked plate loaded in tension. The impact velocities in the tests were 0.1 - 5.0 m/s. The influences of the impact velocity on the fracture initiation load were confirmed. The new application of a high-speed camera to the fracture initiation experiments has been confirmed.

In excimer lasers, the excitation discharge causes various instabilities in subsequent discharge which collapse the highly-repetitive operation. The present study has investigated the effects of the gas density depletion on the excitation discharge instability eliminating the shock waves, the residual ions and the discharge products. The gas density depletion is simulated by utilizing a subsonic flow between the curve electrodes. We have compared the discharge that occurred in the gas density depletion with that by the double- pulse experiment in the stable gas. The gas density distribution is observed by using a Mach-Zehnder interferometer combined with a high-speed image-converter camera. We have found that the big density non-uniformity tends to cause the arc without the shocks, ions and products. The transition from glow to arc with respect to the gas density depletion occurs almost discontinuously. On the other hand, the second discharge on the double-pulse discharge becomes arc in much smaller non-uniformity, where the transition occurs very slowly. Therefore, it can be suggested that the discharge instability is also caused by some factors other than gas density depletion.

An electronic speckle pattern interferometry system based on a frequency-doubled twin Nd:YAG laser emitting dual pulses at a TV camera field rate (50 Hz) was developed to analyze addition fringes generated by transient deformation of a test object. The main advance has been the automatic, quantitative analysis of dual-pulsed addition ESPI data by the introduction of carrier fringes and the application of Fourier methods. The carrier fringes are introduced between dual pulses by tilting the reference beam with a mirror driven by a galvanometer. The resulting deformation-modulated addition fringes are enhanced with a variance filter before evaluation of the phase distribution using a Fourier transform method with bandpass filtering. From the wrapped phase distribution, a continuous phase map is reconstructed using an iterative weighted least- squares unwrapper. The linear phase distribution associated with the carrier fringes is removed by evaluating it with a least-squares fitting algorithm. Preliminary results obtained for a thin plate submitted to an acoustic shock show the suitability of the system for the quantitative evaluation of transient deformation fields.

The acoustic environment created by turbulence in aircraft flight tests demands that illumination sources for high speed photography of munitions drops be extremely rugged. A repetitive pulsed surface discharge system has been developed to provide wide angle illumination in a bomb bay for photography at 250 - 500 Hertz. The lamp has a simple construction suitable for adverse environments and produces 100 mJ of visible light per pulse. The discharge parameters were selected to minimize the size and complexity of the power supply. The system is also capable of operating at high repetition rates; preliminary tests demonstrated 1000 pulses at 1 kHz, 200 pulses at 1.5 kHz, and 13 pulses at 2 kHz. A simple power supply capable of providing several amperes at 450 V is being completed; it will be used to extend the run times and to explore extensions to higher repetition rate.

High speed photography for range testing often requires intense disposable illumination sources. A low cost surface discharge source is being developed to replace argon candles for many range tests. Since the test environment will likely destroy the lamp, it is fabricated from inexpensive materials and does not require machining of any components. A series of tests were performed to determine the radiative output in the visible of candidate surface discharge lamps, and to clarify the illumination requirements. Tests using a range camera and a short pulse 100 cm² planar surface discharge determined that an irradiance of 600 W/cm² on target is sufficient for black and white photography at 2 million fps whereas color photography requires approximately 3 kW/cm². The results of the subscale tests have been used to guide development of a full scale pulse forming network (PFN) matched to a set of surface discharge lamps. The PFN delivers 12 kJ to the lamps in pulses that can range from 40 microseconds to 1 ms. The matching lamps have been developed and tested for pulse lengths as long as 200 microseconds.

In this paper, by solving the equation for the density of the nonequilibrium carriers (NEC), taking into account laser generation, the linear and auger recombination and diffusion, we have obtained the excited electron-hole plasma density. A model is developed to calculate the effect of the plasma on the gap between the conduction band and valence band.

In this paper harmonic oscillator is used to study the changes of levels of atomic hydrogen in intense laser field. A series energy eigenwerts of harmonic oscillator between the former levels are obtained.

A physics model for ignition process of high-power laser supported detonation wave has been built, and its physics mechanisms been elaborated, and a single estimating method of plasma ignition time been presented. By using optical shadow exploring method, an investigation for the laser supported detonation wave produced by a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser acted on an Al target has been made.

Improvement of beam quality is a major task in most of the laser systems. To optimize the performance of copper vapor laser system, beam propagation in an injection-controlled copper vapor laser system is investigated on account of thermal lens effect. Far-field intensity distribution as well as its temporal evolution of the output from a copper vapor laser oscillator at different operating conditions are measured in detail. Experimental observation has bene performed about the influence of delay time between the oscillator and amplifier on the far-field intensity distribution of the output from the amplifier. The application of a single-pass unfolded amplifier model has been successfully demonstrated to describe beam propagation within the system.

Photogrammetry using multiple sequential recorded film and video images has been an integral part of flight test and evaluation at the Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division (NAWCAD) at Patuxent River, Maryland for nearly 40 years. Photogrammetric analysis is used for evaluation of stores separation, carrier suitability, ballistic trajectory tracking, overhead impact scoring, and mishap reconstruction. NAWCAD, Patuxent River, Maryland recently began flight testing for the F/A-18 E/F development program. The initial phase of the weapons separation portion of the F/A-18 E/F development program is a 13 month project consisting of two aircraft flying 256 flights during which 2000 stores will be dropped. To meet the challenge of processing high volumes of photogrammetric data and delivering solutions within 72 hours of each flight, the NAWCAD Photogrammetric Team initiated strategies to reduce the time and to increase the volume of data analysis, and to increase the accuracies of solution processes that historically have been labor intensive and difficult to present. The NAWCAD Photogrammetric Team is developing an image enhancement and data analysis system, and the on-line database which will provide near real-time access and retrievability of test data. This paper describes how NAWCAD scientists have applied a clearly defined process for photogrammetric efforts, and implemented state-of-the-art hardware and software methodologies and architecture that reduce the turnaround time, reduce the cost, increase the accuracy, and facilitate the delivery of custom-formatted products to the flight test engineer.

The dynamic motion of a compressible vortex ring is studied by using an optical shadowgraph. A vortex ring treated here is generated by the impulse of a shock wave emerging from the open end of a shock-tube into the atmosphere. A jet flow ejecting from the shock-tube follows behind the vortex ring. The vortex ring moves forward at a self-induced velocity of 135 m/s. A rearward-facing shock wave is formed inside the vortex ring. This shock travels upstream, and leaves the vortex ring. A very thin vortex ring appears on the front interface of the main vortex ring. The instability wave is entrained in the main vortex core filament, and amplified. The disturbed jet flow behind the ring passes through the inside of the ring. As the region between the main vortex core and the interface of the vortex ring is filled with turbulent vortices, the tin vortex ring moves rearward on the interface of the vortex ring. The vortex ring becomes turbulent-like.

This paper presents an eye tracking system that combines optical and electronic image processing for the precise measurement of eye movement parameters, including direction, speed, and acceleration. The system applies optical joint Fourier transform correlator and novelty filtering to measure the cross-correlation peak displacement caused by eye movements using magnified images of iris landmark patterns. This permits a 0.026 degree(s) accuracy of eye displacement measurements within a 6 degree(s) tracking range, or a 0.1 degree(s) accuracy within a 20 degree(s) range. Using digital micromirror device SLMs in the Fourier transform optical system, an inverse Fourier transform DSP module, and a high-speed digital camera, the eye tracking system will make it possible to detect and characterize saccadic intrusions in smooth pursuit eye movement.

A novel QNDT (quantitative non-destructive testing) method is developed that is combined with phase-shifting shearing speckle and thermograph, and it aims at the detection of faults, such as crack, voids, delamination, weak areas. The technique is immune to ambient noise and suitable to measure in-situ environment. Some different depth defects that would produce deformation differing from other positions could be found with shearing speckle when the sample is loaded, however, thermograph based on the thermal resistance effect of defect can detect those varisized defects embedded deeply in composite structure by measuring the surface temperature distribution. The resolution is examined for artificial delaminated defects in carbon-fiber composite structures using phase-shifting shearing speckle and thermograph. The experimental results have demonstrated that the technique is effective for revealing defects in the composite structures.

A stable interferometer using two zone plates to measure concave mirror figure is developed. The principle of the measurement is based on the radial shearing interference in which the measuring wavefront from the entire mirror surface under test is referred to that of the central part. On-machine experiments showed that the interferometer would be applicable to the in-process measurement for a diamond turning in about 0.06 micrometers p-p accuracy.

We photographed a transient evaporation under the cryogenic condition, around 2 K, where a very 'pure' system is obtainable to observe an evaporation phenomena because nothing but helium exists in the form of liquid. The phenomena was very fragile, just causing a quote small variation in density. The photos of evaporation, which was induced by a thermal wave incident on the vapor-liquid interface of superfluid helium (HeII), were taken in use of the holographic interferometer with a pulsed ruby later. The superfluid helium has a peculiar character that thermal conduction is carried out in the form of wave, not being in the form of diffusion. Taking advantage of this character, we heated up the vapor-liquid interface of liquid helium by a plane thermal wave, uniform heating parallel to the interface being attainable by generating the thermal wave with a plane heater installed in the liquid, propagating in there and getting incident on the interface. In this paper, we observed the behavior of the evaporation by a thermal wave and measured its propagating speed and density variation with various heat flux from the heater. The infinite fringe interferogram method was mostly adopted just for visualization while the finite fringe interferogram method was utilized for quantitative measurement.

The interferometric technique based on laser autodyne interferometer has been applied for the digital measurement of periodic micromovements of a sample. The measured oscillation parameters are: the amplitude, the frequency and the real time monitoring of the form of the micromovement. The technique does not critically to the adjustment of reflected beam on a sample and works with the diffuse light reflection. The frequency band is from several Hz up to 10⁵ Hz and amplitudes range is from 1 micrometer up to 1 mm. In case of harmonical oscillations the accuracy of measurement was obtained better than 2%. Theoretical and practical aspects of the performance measurement with laser autodyne are discussed.

A technique for 3-intensified-sensor color high speed video camera system to construct precise color image is presented. It consists of a computer program and ancillary instruments (1) to adjust displacement of images taken by two or three image sensors and (2) to calibrate relationship between incident light intensity and corresponding digital output signal simultaneously. The pixel-based displacement adjustment is made by corresponding a pixel of one image sensor with four pixels adjacent to that point on another sensor. The weighted average of outputs for the four pixels are then multiplied by a coefficient calculated from a pixel-based sensitivity calibration. An incident light is splitted into three signals by the cubic prism and these signals are taken by three image sensors. For these images, the pixel-based displacement adjustment and the pixel-based sensitivity calibration are performed by computer program. The gap between the centers of nine circles transformed to another image by computer program and those in another one is within one pixel. As a result, two pixel-based transformation tables for displacement adjustment and sensitivity calibration are made and three images are reconstructed with the use of these tables.

The semiconductor industry relies on digital optical imaging for the overlay metrology of integrated circuit patterns. One critical performance demand in the particular application of digital imaging is placed on the edge resolution that is defined as the smallest detectable variation of the edge image profile acquired in digital form. As the critical feature size of integrated circuit patterns reaches below 0.35 micrometers, the edge resolution is required to be less than 0.01 micrometers. This requirement is so stringent that fundamental behaviors of digital optical imaging need to be further explored especially for precision coordinate metrology. Our investigation reveals that the edge resolution shows quasi- random characteristics, not being simply deduced from relevant opto-electronic system parameters. Hence, a stochastic upper bound analysis is made to come up with the worst edge resolution that can statistically well predict actual indeterminate edge resolutions obtained with high magnification microscope objectives.

Existing methods of image-based motion measurement (except point source cases) idealize borders (edges) of objects. Small changes in movement, direction, or projection can introduce errors into movement measurement. We propose a method that applies differential mapping singularities theory (catastrophe theory) in the context of 3-D object projection into a 2-D image plane, and takes advantage of the fact that the edges of an object can be interpreted in mapping singularities (catastrophes). Several theorems show that mapping of an arbitrary smooth surface can create only 14 singularities. Small changes in object position do not change the type of singularity, but simply shift its critical point. A trajectory of moving critical points, extracted from edge and edge vicinity pixels, can be divide into areas that correspond to different singularity types (a so-called phase diagram). Based on a phase diagram, it is possible to select a corresponding singularity relationship graph (SRG). Knowledge of a SRG allows correct prediction of changes during object movement. This approach provides a significant reduction in calculations for motion prediction and permits correction of predicted motion in all sets of predicted frames. In addition, SRG knowledge allows object tracking, even with sudden changes of direction and use of camouflage.

Genetic algorithm (GA) is an optimization technique that provides an untraditional approach to deal with many nonlinear, complicated problems. The notion of motion measurement using genetic algorithm arises from the fact that the motion measurement is virtually an optimization process based on some criterions. In the paper, we propose a complex motion measurement method using genetic algorithm based on block-matching criterion. The following three problems are mainly discussed and solved in the paper: (1) apply an adaptive method to modify the control parameters of GA that are critical to itself, and offer an elitism strategy at the same time (2) derive an evaluate function of motion measurement for GA based on block-matching technique (3) employ hill-climbing (HC) method hybridly to assist GA's search for the global optimal solution. Some other related problems are also discussed. At the end of paper, experiments result is listed. We employ six motion parameters for measurement in our experiments. Experiments result shows that the performance of our GA is good. The GA can find the object motion accurately and rapidly.

By implicit camera calibration, we mean the process of calibrating cameras without explicitly computing their physical parameters. We introduce a new implicit model based on a generalized mapping between an image plane and multiple, parallel calibration planes (usually between four to seven planes). This paper presents a method of computing a relationship between a point on a three-dimensional (3D) object and its corresponding two-dimensional (2D) coordinate in a camera image. This relationship is expanded to form a mapping of points in 3D space to points in image (camera) space and visa versa that requires only matrix multiplication operations. This paper presents the rationale behind the selection of the forms of four matrices and the algorithms to calculate the parameters for the matrices. Two of the matrices are used to map 3D points in object space to 2D points on the CCD camera image plane. The other two matrices are used to map 2D points on the image plane to points on user defined planes in 3D object space. The mappings include compensation for lens distortion and measurement errors. The number of parameters used can be increased, in a straight forward fashion, to calculate and use as many parameters as needed to obtain a user desired accuracy. Previous methods of camera calibration use a fixed number of parameters which can limit the obtainable accuracy and most require the solution of nonlinear equations. The procedure presented can be used to calibrate a single camera to make 2D measurements or calibrate stereo cameras to make 3D measurements. Positional accuracy of better than 3 parts in 10,000 have been achieved. The algorithms in this paper were developed and are implemented in MATLAB^R (registered trademark of The Math Works, Inc.). We have developed a system to analyze the path of optical fiber during high speed payout (unwinding) of optical fiber off a bobbin. This requires recording and analyzing high speed (5 microsecond exposure time), synchronous, stereo images of the optical fiber during payout. A 3D equation for the fiber at an instant in time is calculated from the corresponding pair of stereo images as follows. In each image, about 20 points along the 2D projection of the fiber are located. Each of these 'fiber points' in one image is mapped to its projection line in 3D space. Each projection line is mapped into another line in the second image. The intersection of each mapped projection line and a curve fitted to the fiber points of the second image (fiber projection in second image) is calculated. Each intersection point is mapped back to the 3D space. A 3D fiber coordinate is formed from the intersection, in 3D space, of a mapped intersection point with its corresponding projection line. The 3D equation for the fiber is computed from this ordered list of 3D coordinates. This process requires a method of accurately mapping 2D (image space) to 3D (object space) and visa versa.3173

Silicon micromachines are fabricated using Surface Micro-Machining (SMM) techniques. Silicon micromachines include engines that consist of orthogonally oriented linear comb drive actuators mechanically connected to a rotating gear. These gears are as small as 50-μm in diameter and can be driven at rotation rates exceeding 300,000-rpm. Measuring and analyzing microengine performance is basic to micromachine development and system applications. Optical techniques offer the potential for measuring long term statistical performance data and transient responses needed to optimize designs and manufacturing techniques. We describe the modeling of an optical probe developed at Sandia National Laboratories. Experimental data will be compared with output from the model. Key words: Micromachines, optical probe, performance analysis, optical modeling

Due to the CCD has many advantages, it has been used more and more widely, such as in the areas of sports, building engineering, industry and military engineering. This paper put emphasis on discussing the applications of the CCD camera. introduces the principle of system structure and operation of the three dimensional CCD photoelectric measurement system. Some tested results are given: for example, test of rise time; debugtime, over shoot and steady-state error of radar tracking system; the aim process measurement of shooting sportsman. the test of the initial velocity of bullet, etc .. The solved technical problem is discussed. For the pufpose of raising measuring accuracy, the fine division method is used. The equipment uses single-chip micro-processor to ~trol the system and process data Keyword: photoelectric measurement, 3 dimensional measurement system, application of CCD camera

Estimating motion parameters and spatial position of object is very important in target tracking and computer vision. The constraint for obtaining 3D motion and coordinates from a monocular image sequence is first presented and proved in this paper. With this constraint, a nonlinear recursive filtering algorithm for estimating 3D motion parameters and 3D spatial position of a point target from monocular images has been proposed. The performance of the proposed technique on simulated image sequence is also involved. Keywords: image analysis, motion estimation, recursive filtering

In this paper, we propose the optimal estimation of motion parameters and structures ofa three-dimensional(3-D) rigid object from a monocular image sequence. First, object motion model and camera imaging model are discussed. And then, through further analysis, the state equation and measurement equation of the object is established, an iterated extended Kalman filtering(IEKF) algorithm is adopted when the estimated system is continuous and nonlinear. The simulative numerical experiments have shown that the presented method is efficient. Keywords: 3-D object recognition, motion parameters and structures estimation, monocular image sequence, motion model, imaging model, Kalman filtering

Commercial realization of a new generation of intensified CCD (ICCD) cameras merges the speed traditionally associated with video systems with the sensitivity, dynamic range, and flexibility of scientific cameras. These advances in camera design were driven by the needs of specific applications for which no solution with sufficient speed and sensitivity had yet been offered. Recent developments in non-video scientific CCD devices have produced arrays that can operate both faster and with lower read noise than before. The frame transfer CCD utilized in this ICCD camera allows simultaneous exposure and readout, increasing the amount of time the CCD is collecting light to nearly 100%, and providing a 5 MHz readout rate at a fraction of the noise of video CCDs. The CCD also has none of the resolution, format, dynamic range, and timing limitations inherent in a video CCD. Camera subimaging and binning translates to frame rates many times faster than video. Both Gen II and "Gen IV" image intensifiers can be fiber optically coupled to the CCD for maximum throughput. Other camera design advances that will be discussed include a standard video output, dual analog channels, and a sealed package requiring no water or purge gas. Keywords: CCD, image intensifier, camera, digital imaging, high resolution cameras

For low light level imaging application, a proximity focused electron bombardment CCD (EB-CCD) tube has been developed. In the tube, electrons emitted from the multi-alkali (S-20) photocathode in response to incident light are accelerated by the electric field and bombarded the specially processed CCD which is sensitive to electrons. The electron bombardment gain is 600 at applied voltage of -8kV to the photocathode. Single photon counting operation is possible, because the gain is larger than the readout noise and the dark noise of the CCD. The spatial resolution is better than 360 TV lines, which is the theoretical limit of the full frame transfer CCD (FFT-CCD) of 512 by 512 pixels. No major degradation of either the photocathode sensitivity or the incorporated CCD was observed during the operation for a few tens hours. The life of the EB-CCD tube is being under evaluation. Keywords: Electron tube, Photocathode, Image intensifier, Electron-bombardment, CCD, Low light level imaging

This paper presents recent experimental and theoretical results regarding the dynamic range and noise performance of ICCD cameras which use micro-channel plate (MCP) image intensifiers. Vendor specifications for image intensifiers using these devices suggest that the noise factor is in the range of 1.6 to 2.2 for Gen II intensifiers and 3.5-4.2 for Gen III intensifiers which use filmed MCPs to extend the GaAs photo cathode lifetime. Our experimental results suggest that the ICCD noise factor increases dramatically as the gain is reduced to accommodate higher background light levels. Noise factors in excess of 60 have been observed. For most applications where the MCP is operated at high gain, this behavior is never encountered. However, for applications which use the MCP as a low-gain device, such as active laser range-gated systems operated in high background reflectance conditions, the imaging performance can be severely degraded. A model for the gain dependent ICCD noise factor has been developed which will be compared with the experimentally observed effects. Keywords: Micro-channel Plate, MCP, Noise Factor, Intensified CCD, ICCD, Dynamic Range, Range-Gating, Laser LineScan.

Air Warrior is a program to define a fully integrated ensemble of equipment to be worn and/or carried by Army aviators. The U.S. Army Night Vision Directorate has conducted a trade study of helmet mounted intensifier and display components having potential utility for Air Warrior. Over two dozen technical design issues were identified (FOV, resolution, mass, symbology viewability, etc.) These were categorized, prioritized and assigned relative weightings amongst each other. Each was also given its own individual scoring metric on a 100 point maximum scale. The scoring system was implemented in a database/model and exercised against over sixty systems differing in number of image intensifier tubes, tube sizes, objective optics, and HMD technologies. The resulting model allows complex systems to be related to one another quantitatively on a common basis. While the benefit of substantial scientific understanding was applied in developing these metrics, the scope of the undertaking and the wide range of issues also required careful use of subjective judgment. Defmitive, quantitative studies have not been concluded on all parameters relevant to Air Warrior, however, the NVESD team believes that the product of this study is as forward thinking and applicable to near-future Army aviation as is possible given the current understanding of the myriad issues involved. The database/model is expected to evolve as the scientific knowledge base grows. This paper discusses model development and sample results of comparison exercises. For more detailed information, readers are referred to the 200 page fmal report which may be requested through Mr. Brian Gillespie at NVESD, Fort Belvoir, Virginia. Keywords: trade study, image intensifier, helmet mounted display, Air Warrior

One important class of cosmic ray instrumentation utilizes a ruggedized photon-counting microchannel plate image intensifier tube in the prime detector assembly. This type of detector provides the necessary hodoscope imaging, utilizing scintillating optical fibers coupled to the image intensifier tube, as well as serving as a preamplifier for photodiodes that trigger event readouts. Image information in the active area of the image converter tube is read-out by a CCD camera which is fiberoptically coupled to it. This design is capable of providing position resolution to better than 130 micrometers.

Microchannel plates (MCPs) are solid state electron multipliers consisting of millions (10E5 - 10E7 channels/cm²) of microscopic (typically 10 - 25 microns) continuous dynode electron multipliers all fused together in a solid array. Fabricated from an alkali doped, reduced lead silicate glass, microchannel plates are known as excellent high gain, low noise, two dimensional detectors of charged particles and electromagnetic radiation. The microchannel plate manufacturing process begins with a series of glass fiber draws in which an acid soluble core glass is combined with an alkali soluble clad tube and drawn to form a mono fiber. Mono fibers (typically 2,000 - 4,000) are then assembled into a hexagonal preform called a multi wrap. The preform is again drawn to form a multifiber producing an overall feature size reduction of typically 2000:1. The multi fibers then become the basic building blocks. Hundreds of multi fibers are next arranged to form the active area of the MCP. High temperature vacuum fusion is then used to fuse the multi fibers together with the solid glass border (if used) to form a billet or boule. Standard semiconductor slicing, lapping and polishing techniques are used to prepare the wafers for chemical processing. Chemical processing consists of etching open the microchannels, adjusting the open area ratio (OAR) and preparing the silica rich emissive layer. A hydrogen firing produced is used to reduce the lead glass making it electrically conductive. Finally a thin (typically 2,000 to 3,000 angstroms) film of metallization is vacuum deposited on both sides of the microchannel plate to electrically connect each of the channels in parallel, therefore ensuring the same potential is applied to each channel. Microchannel plates operate on the principle of secondary electron emission. In operation, primary events enter the input side of the MCP and collide with the channel wall. If the primary event has sufficient energy, secondary electrons will result. The resultant secondary electrons are accelerated down the channel by the electric field produced when a high voltage is applied between the electrode faces. Additional collisions with the channel walls produce still further secondary electrons.

A previous model of microchannel plate (MCP) devices operating in conditions of gain saturation has been extended to include charge diffusion along the microchannel during the gain recovery process. To this purpose the set of independent recharging circuits previously associated to each MCP dynode has been replaced by a distributed parameter electrical network that represents the entire microchannel consistently with the structure of the microchannel wall as described in the literature. The model obtained in this way, unlike the previous one, takes into account the interaction between dynodes during the gain recovery and is also consistent with the operation of MCP devices in conditions of very fast gating. As for the previous model the gain and voltage along the channel are described by a pair of coupled, nonlinear differential equations whose numerical solutions are computed in conditions of a steady-state input current. Simplified analytical solutions for short pulse operations are also derived and discussed.

A high gain fluorescence microscope is developed to meet the needs in medical and biological research. By the help of an image intensifier with luminance gain of 4 by 10⁴ the sensitivity of the system can achieve 10^-6 1x level and be 10⁴ times higher than ordinary fluorescence microscope. Ultra-weak fluorescence image can be detected by it. The concentration of fluorescent label and emitting light intensity of the system are decreased as much as possible, therefore, the natural environment of the detected call can be kept. The CCD image acquisition set-up controlled by computer obtains the quantitative data of each point according to the gray scale. The relation between luminous intensity and output of CCD is obtained by using a wide range weak photometry. So the system not only shows the image of ultra-weak fluorescence distribution but also gives the intensity of fluorescence of each point. Using this system, we obtained the images of distribution of hypocrellin A (HA) in Hela cell, the images of Hela cell being protected by antioxidant reagent Vit. E, SF and BHT. The images show that the digitized ultra-sensitive fluorescence microscope is a useful tool for medical and biological research.

This research discusses the design, development and test of a four-color, IR, high-speed, imaging spectrometer for the characterization of dynamic temperature changes of casing materials (metals) of weapons systems during detonation. This spectrometer, was used with the knowledge that the emissivity for metals follows a second order polynomial in wavelength to produce an accurate optical pyrometer system. A laboratory experiment was setup to verify the performance of the system. It was shown that the new spectrometer accurately calculated the coefficients for emissivity and determined the temperature across a metal material within 5 degrees centigrade.

The advanced image intensification system (AI^2/ is an advanced technology demonstrator that incorporates several new improvements into a direct view night vision device. An electroluminescent display (ELD) panel was integrated into the AI² monocular. This development placed a transparent ELD panel in contact with the output image plane of the intensifier such that the intensified image and the video image are viewed simultaneously. Additionally, the device field of view was increased to 60 degrees from the 40 degrees that is typical for presently fielded night vision devices. The incorporation of a display and an increased field of view into a night vision monocular resulted in a new optomechanical architecture that was driven by the cumulative requirements of this program. Several advancements were also incorporated into the intensifier assembly. An automatic photocathode gating scheme was developed and proven in this effort. A user adjustable variable intensifier gain was also incorporated into this system. Test data verifying the basic feasibility of the AI² design was taken and user evaluations (infantry and aviation) have been conducted.

The primary purpose of this interdisciplinary paper is to open a dialogue between meteorologists and the experts in SPIE on high-speed photogrammetry. We summarize some of the truths and half-truths conveyed by the recent blockbuster movie 'Twister.' Attempts by the meteorological community over the past 25 years to probe tornadoes and related convective vortices like dust-devils and waterspouts are summarized, with special emphasis on windspeeds near the ground. Photogrammetric estimates made by tracking debris elements and other tracers in eyewitness tornado movies yield peak values as high as 250 - 285 mph; however, there remains much uncertainty about both the accuracy and representativeness of these estimates. We believe that new digital hardware and software for image processing and photogrammetry might yield more reliable tornado windspeed estimates, if our two communities can work together; in fact, multiple simultaneous videos of a debris-laden tornado during the 1995 Vortex field project offer the prospect of 3D photogrammetric windfield synthesis.

Ultrafast imaging is an important need for the development, control, and evaluation of modern air-deliverable weapons systems. Recent advances in optical imaging such as speckle interferometry can potentially improve DoD capability to deliver munitions and armaments to targets at long ranges, and under adverse seeing conditions. Moderate density arrays of at least 100 by 100 pixels and frame rates of at least 1 MHz are required. Ultrafast imaging is also required for flow field optical image analysis for hypersonic propulsion systems. Silicon Mountain Design (SMD) has built such an imager so that high quality images can be obtained for relatively low cost. The SMD-64k1M camera is capable of imaging 1,000,000 frames per second using a 256 by 256 array with the ability to store 16 frames with true 12 bits of dynamic range. This camera allows researchers to capture multiple high speed events using solid state technology housed in a 53 cubic inch package. A brief technical overview of the imager and results are presented in this paper.

One of the main problems facing users of high speed imagers is the difficulty of storing the large volume of generated data. Silicon Mountain Design (SMD) has designed a 1000 frame per second digital camera, the Mach-1, which alleviates this problem by storing 1000 frames in its on board memory. SMD's software then allows the user to view the data set, or a subset and save the desired information to the storage media of choice. The unique design and interline transfer architecture of SMD's imager gives this camera high sensitivity, excellent red response, and eliminates the image smearing common in other high speed cameras. The Mach-1's output has 10 bits of dynamic range and uses innovative electronics to achieve less than 1 bit of rms noise, all without the need for active cooling. The frame rate is adjustable from 1000 FPS down to 62.5 FPS by factors of 2 and electronic shuttering is offered down to 10 microseconds. Electronic shuttering results in crisp images of rapidly moving objects without the need for inefficient LCD shutters. The Mach-1 also has the capability of synchronizing multiple cameras which allows for stereo imaging and other multiple viewpoint applications. The Mach-1 has been used to enhance the performance of weapons delivery systems and also for 3 dimensional medical imaging. A brief technical overview of the camera and its performance are presented in this paper.

It is extremely difficult and expensive to determine the flight attitude and aimpoint of small maneuvering miniature air vehicles from ground based fixed or tracking photography. Telemetry alone cannot provide sufficient information bandwidth on 'what' the ground tracking is seeing and consequently 'why' it did or did not function properly. Additionally, it is anticipated that 'smart' and 'brilliant' guided vehicles now in development will require a high resolution imaging support system to determine which target and which part of a ground feature is being used for navigation or targeting. Other requirements include support of sub-component separation from developmental supersonic vehicles, where the clean separation from the container is not determinable from ground based film systems and film cameras do not survive vehicle breakup and impact. Hence, the requirement is to develop and demonstrate an imaging support system for development/testing that can provide the flight vehicle developer/analyst with imagery (combined with miniature telemetry sources) sufficient to recreate the trajectory, terminal navigation, and flight termination events. This project is a development and demonstration of a real-time, launch-rated, shuttered, electronic imager, transmitter, and analysis system. This effort demonstrated boresighted imagery from inside small flight vehicles for post flight analysis of trajectory, and capture of ground imagery during random triggered vehicle functions. The initial studies for this capability have been accomplished by the Experimental Dynamics Section of the Air Force Wright Laboratory, Armament Directorate, Eglin AFB, Florida, and the Telemetry Support Branch of the Army Material Research and Development Center at Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey. It has been determined that at 1/10,000 of a second exposure time, new ultra-miniature CCD sensors have sufficient sensitivity to image key ground target features without blur, thereby providing data for trajectory, timing, and advanced sensor development. This system will be used for ground tracking data reduction in support of small air vehicle and munition testing. It will provide a means of integrating the imagery and telemetry data from the item with ground based photographic support. The technique we have designed will exploit off-the-shelf software and analysis components. A differential GPS survey instrument will establish a photogrammetric calibration grid throughout the range and reference targets along the flight path. Images from the on-board sensor will be used to calibrate the ortho- rectification model in the analysis software. The projectile images will be transmitted and recorded on several tape recorders to insure complete capture of each video field. The images will be combined with a non-linear video editor into a time-correlated record. Each correlated video field will be written to video disk. The files will be converted to DMA compatible format and then analyzed for determination of the projectile altitude, attitude and position in space. The resulting data file will be used to create a photomosaic of the ground the projectile flew over and the targets it saw. The data will be then transformed to a trajectory file and used to generate a graphic overlay that will merge digital photo data of the range with actual images captured. The plan is to superimpose the flight path of the projectile, the path of the weapons aimpoint, and annotation of each internal sequence event. With tools used to produce state-of-the-art computer graphics, we now think it will be possible to reconstruct the test event from the viewpoint of the warhead, the target, and a 'God's-Eye' view looking over the shoulder of the projectile.

A review of early history in photography highlights the origin of cinefilm as a scientific tool for image-based measurement of human and animal motion. The paper is concerned with scanned-area video sensors (CCD) and a computer interface for the real-time, high-resolution extraction of image coordinates of moving markers. Algorithms and implementations are reviewed for the estimation of marker midpoints. Two-valued (above-threshold) representations of the video signal, as well as grey-scale digitizing are discussed. Attainable resolutions and computational effort are presented. Distributed, per-camera processing is a new option, which uses an embedded microcomputer for image reduction to real-time marker midpoint data. Developments are discussed in 3-D camera calibration and in the real-time 3-D matching of marker images, essential in realtime 3-D reconstruction. Applications are in 3-D motion capture for animation and in motion analysis of wind turbine rotors. Keywords: markers, embedded image processing, coordinates, location, grey-scale processing, sub-pixel resolution, marker tracking, 3D, real-time, motion capture, animation, wind turbines, motion analysis.

A few examples of observation and measurement of 3D images of objects and fast processes are described: gunpowder burning, distribution of droplets in diesel engine sprayers, pressure distribution in T-joints of automobile fuel discharge systems, thin wire explosions, flashlamps for pumping solid state lasers, heterogeneous gas-liquid flows in pipes, flow velocity distribution in a spillway of river dams, etc. A number of special holographic facilities have been designed and constructed to obtain and process the required data.

Periodic defocusing of the crystalline lens leads to generalization of an image projected on the retina. In the process, the fine structure of the image is eliminated while informative fragments (IF), that is, brighter spots with abrupt contour change, are emphasized. The shape and arrangement of IFs may be utilized by a visual system in order to trigger saccades and form receptive areas. Results of theoretical and experimental optical studies imitating physiological processes are described. These results may be of interest to physiologists and can be used to develop anthropomorphic technical systems. A brief comparative analysis of other anthropomorphic systems proposed by A.. P. Ginsburg, T. Podjio, D. I. Tomsit and others is given. A specific model of anthropomorphic robot representing a holographic correlator processing images by defocusing and by applying a set of spatial filters. These filters are constructed using a set of elementary images formed from two images, a straight stripe and a round spot, recognized by all living beings. Such a robot can be used for drawing letters and numerals from their written images; for classification of many similar images; for processing aerial photographs to determine boundaries between woods, various crops, etc. Input image defocusing is shown to be also useful for narrowing bandwidth in TV systems; for automatic loading of optical information after removal of noise. Keywords: optical pattern recognition, defocusing, visual system, spatial frequencies, optical transfer function, informative fragments, image perception, anthropomorphic robot.